专八人文知识完全版语言学linguistics.docx
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专八人文知识完全版语言学linguistics.docx
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专八人文知识完全版语言学linguistics
AGlossaryofLinguisticTerms
(1)
accusative Seecase.
active Anactivesentenceisonewhichhasabasicpatternlikethemanisrunningorthedogbitthecat,i.e.itdescribeswhatonething(thesubject)does,oftentoanotherthing(theobject).Theverbinanactivesentencecanbesaidtobeintheactivemood.Seealsopassive.
adjective Awordwhichqualifiesorfurtherdescribesanounornounphrase.ExamplesarecolourlessandgreenwhichqualifyideasinColourlessgreenideassleepfuriously.
adverb Awordwhichqualifiesorfurtherdescribesaverb.ExamplesarefuriouslywhichqualifiessleepinColourlessgreenideassleepfuriously,orintenselywhichqualifiesstaredinHestaredatmeintensely.Adverbscanalsoqualifyadjectives,e.g.astonishinglyinanastonishinglyvividcolour,orotheradverbs,e.g.extremelyinthephraseextremelyslowly.ManyEnglishadverbsareformedfromanadjectiveplustheending-ly.Wordslikeverywhichcanonlyqualifyadjectivesoradverbsbutnotverbsaresometimescalledadverbs,butareperhapsbestputinaseparatecategory.
affricative Anaffricativeisaphonewhichcanbethoughtofasaveryrapid,blendedsequenceofastopandafricative.Thestopandfricativemustbeproducedinaverysimilarpositionsinthemouth.AnEnglishexampleisthe'chsound'inchoose,whichislikeasequenceofa'tsound'(astop)anda'shsound'(africative).Thephraseswhiteshoesandwhychoose?
soundverysimilarwhenspokenrapidly.IntheIPAanaffricativeisrepresentedbythecorrespondingstopsymbolfollowedbythefricativesymbol.ItisimportanttonotethatthetwosymbolsrepresentaSINGLEphone.
agreement Thesyntaxofanaturallanguageoftenrequiressomewordsinasentencetosharecertaingrammaticalfeatures,whichcanshowupaschangesinthemorphologyofthewords.Thisiscalledagreement;thewordsaresaidtoagreeintherelevantfeature(s).Forexample,inEnglish,determinersandnounsmustagreeinnumberwithinanounphrase.Thusthiscatisacceptablesincethisandcataresingular,butthesecatisunacceptablesincetheseispluralbutcatissingular.
allophone Eachofthesetofphoneswhichcorrespondtoasinglephonemeofalanguageiscalledanallophone.Allophonesofthesamephonemegenerallyoccurindifferentcontextsandneverdistinguishonewordfromanother.Asanexample,the'tsounds'inteaandtreeconstituteallophonesofoneEnglish/t/phoneme.Theproductionofthetwosoundsdiffersinthatspeaker'stongueisinaslightlydifferentplace.Aspeechspectrographwillshowaresultingsounddifference.However,noEnglishwordsdifferONLYinthesubstitutionofoneofthese'tsounds'fortheother.
anaphora Somewordsinasentencehavelittleornomeaningoftheirownbutinsteadrefertootherwordsinthesameorothersentences.Thisprocessiscalledanaphora.Pronounsareagoodexample.Considerthesentences:
Londonhadsnowyesterday.Itfelltoadepthofametre.TounderstandthesecondsentenceitisnecessarytoidentifyitwithsnowratherthanLondonoryesterday.Englishallowsvariousformsofanaphorawithverbs.Forexample,inIwantedtofinishtoday,butIcouldn'tdoit,thewordsdoitrefertofinishtodayandhencecanbecalledanaphoric.
approximant Anapproximantisaphoneinwhichthetonguepartlyclosestheairway,butnotenoughtocauseafricative.ExamplesinEnglisharethephonesthatbeginlapandwoo.Approximantscanbedividedintoliquidsandglides.Approximants(especiallyglides)havesomesimilaritiestovowels.
article InEnglish,a/anandthearecalledtheindefiniteanddefinitearticlesrespectively.Seealsodeterminer.
aspect(ofaverb) Verbscanshownotonlythetimelocationofanaction(bygrammaticaltense),butalsofeaturessuchaswhethertheactionisthoughtofascompletedorcontinuing.Achangeinaverbwhichshowssuchafeatureisoftencalledanaspectoftheverb.CompareatewithwaseatinginHeaterapidlywhenIcameinandHewaseatingrapidlywhenIcamein.Bothrefertoeventsinthepasttime;thedifferenceliesintheimpliedrelationshipbetweentheactionsof'eating'and'comingin'.Syntactically,Englishhastwomarkedaspects:
progressiveandperfect.Theprogressiveaspectisformedbyusingtheauxiliarybeandtheverbending-ing.Forexample,Iameatingitnowimpliesboththatthetimeisthepresentandthatthe'eating'iscurrentlyinprogress.Theperfectaspectisformedbyusingtheauxiliaryhaveandtheappropriateverbending(usually-enor-ed):
e.g.Ihaveeatenitnow,whichimpliesboththatthetimeisthepresentandthatthe'eating'isfinished.AnEnglishverbcanshownoaspect(e.g.runsorran),progressiveaspect(e.g.isrunningorwasrunning),perfectaspect(e.g.hasrunorhadrun)orbothperfectandprogressiveaspects(e.g.hasbeenrunningorhadbeenrunning).ThetablebelowshowsthepossiblecombinationsoftenseandaspectinEnglishverbs.
Tense
Present
Past
Aspect
None
Irun
Iran
Progressive
Iamrunning
Iwasrunning
Perfect
Ihaverun
Ihadrun
PerfectProgressive
Ihavebeenrunning
Ihadbeenrunning
aspiration Ifaphoneisaccompaniedbya'puffofair'itcanbesaidtobeaspirated.The'psound'intheEnglishwordpitisaspiratedandisthusslightlydifferentfromthe'psound'inspit,whichisnotaspirated.
assimilation Particularlyinrapidspeechthereisatendencyforneighbouringphonestobecomemoresimilar,presumablytomakepronunciationeasier.Forexample,althoughthewordsAstonandAsdaarebothwrittenwithans,thesecondwordisnormallypronouncedasifspeltAzda.Thereasonseemstobethat[s]and[t]arebothvoiceless,whereas[z]and[d]arebothvoiced.Thesequencefricativefollowedbystopiseasiertosayifbothhavethesamevoicing.
ATN=AugmentedTransitionNetwork.
auxiliary InEnglish,oneofasmallsetofverb-likewordswhichcanprecedeamainverbinaverbphrase.Theauxiliariesandverbsaresometimessaidtoforma'verbgroup'or'compoundverb'.ExamplesofauxiliariesaredoinIreallydonotknow,ormayinImayseehimtomorrow.Auxiliarieshaveverb-likeproperties,andmayshowchangesinnumber,personandtense.Somewords(e.g.have)canbeeitheranauxiliary(e.g.Ihaveseenhim)oraverb(e.g.Ihaveacar).
case Nouns,nounphrasesandpronounsplaydifferentrolesinsentences.Theserolescorrespondtochangesofcaseinmanylanguages.Consider,forexample,thesentencesShesawhimandHesawher.Thewordssheandheareusedwhentheyformthesubjectofthesentenceandaresaidtobeinthenominativecase.Sheandhemustbechangedtoherandhimrespectivelywhentheyformtheobjectofthesentenceandaresaidtobeintheaccusativecase.ChangesduetocasearerestrictedtopronounsinEnglish,butinotherlanguages(e.g.Russian,ModernGreek),mostnouns,pronouns,articles,adjectives,etc.willvaryaccordingtocase.
circumstantialtheta-role Seethetarole.
determiner(det) Thedefiniteandindefinitearticlesplusasmallsetofothersimilarwords(e.g.genitivepronouns)whichqualifynounsornounphrasescanbegroupedasdeterminers.Examplesofdeterminersarethis,that,my.AnEnglishnounphrasealwayscontainsatmostonedeterminer;singularnounphrasesgenerallyrequireexactlyonedeterminer.Semantically,theydeterminethataparticularinstanceofthenounisbeingreferred(back)to.Forexample,There'samanatthedoor--thewordaintroducesamanintotheconversation.TellthemanI'llcomeinaminute--thewordtherefersbacktothepreviouslymentionedman.
Nounphrasesinthegenitiveactasdeterminers.ThusinIsawtheoldlady'scat,thegenitivenounphrasetheoldlady'scanbereplacedbythesingleworddeterminerher.
dialect Generallydialectsofalanguagearemoresimilarthandifferentlanguages.However,whatisadialectandwhatisalanguageisoftenapoliticalratherthanalinguisticquestion.ThedivisionofSerbo-Croat,thecommonlanguageofformerYugoslavia,intotwolanguages,SerbianandCroatian,showsthisrathersharply.AfurtherexampleofverysimilarlanguageswhichmightbecalleddialectsofthesamelanguageareDutch(spokenintheNetherlands)andFlemish(spokeninnorth-westernBelgium.Ontheotherhand,inChinatherearelanguageswhicharemutuallyun-intelligiblewhenspokenbutareoftencalleddialectsofoneChineselanguage.Itisimportanttonotethatalthoughsomedialectshavemoresocialprestigeinacountrythanothers,thissaysnothingabouttheirlinguisticqualities.
diphthong Ifthetonguemovessignificantlyduringtheproductionofavowelphone,theresultisadiphthong.Adiphthongsoundslikearapid,blendedsequenceoftwoseparatevowels.AnexampleinEnglishisthevowelsoundinthewordkite,whichislikearapidcombinationofakindof'asound'andakindof'isound'.IntheIPAadiphthongisrepresentedbytwovowelsymbols.ItisimportanttonotethatthetwosymbolsrepresentaSINGLEphone.
directobject Seeobject.
ellipsis Atechnicaltermforleavingoutwordsinsentences.Forexample,inBrianatetheice-creamandJudythepeaches,thereisellipsis,sincethewordateisomittedafterJudy.
feature Seesemanticfeature.
feminine Seegender.
fricative Ifduringtheproductionofaphone,airismadetopassthroughanarrowpassage,a'friction'soundorfricativeisproduced(i.e.amore-or-less'hissing'sound).Englishexamplesarethe'fsound'infeeorthe'shsound'inshe.
gender Insomelanguages(butnotEnglish),nounsfallintoasmallnumberofclasseswhichrequirechangesinthearticles,adjectives
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