Chapter 6 The Itallian Renaissance.docx
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Chapter 6 The Itallian Renaissance.docx
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Chapter6TheItallianRenaissance
TheItalianRenaissance
TheItalianRenaissancebegantheopeningphaseoftheRenaissance,aperiodofgreatculturalchangeandachievementinEuropethatspannedtheperiodfromtheendofthe13thcenturytoabout1600,markingthetransitionbetweenMedievalandEarlyModernEurope.Althoughtheoriginsofamovementthatwasconfinedlargelytotheliteratecultureofintellectualendeavorandpatronagecanbetracedtotheearlierpartofthe14thcentury,manyaspectsofItaliancultureandsocietyremainedlargelyMedieval;theRenaissancedidnotcomeintofullswinguntiltheendofthecentury.Thewordrenaissancemeans“rebirth”,andtheeraisbestknownfortherenewedinterestinthecultureofclassicalantiquityaftertheperiodthatRenaissancehumanistslabelledtheDarkAges.Thesechanges,whilesignificant,wereconcentratedintheelite,andforthevastmajorityofthepopulationlifewaslittlechangedfromtheMiddleAges.
TheEuropeanRenaissancebeganinTuscany,andcenteredinthecitiesofFlorenceandSiena.ItlaterhadagreatimpactonVenice,wheretheremainsofancientGreekculturewerebroughttogether,providinghumanistscholarswithnewtexts.TheRenaissancelaterhadasignificanteffectonRome,thenwaslargelyrebuiltbyhumanistsixteenth-centurypopes.TheItalianRenaissancepeakedinthelate15thcenturyasforeigninvasionsplungedtheregionintotheturmoiloftheItalianWars.However,theideasandidealsoftheRenaissancespreadintotherestofEurope,settingofftheNorthernRenaissance,andtheEnglishRenaissance.
TheItalianRenaissanceisbestknownforitsculturalachievements.AccountsofRenaissanceliteratureusuallybeginwithPetrarch(bestknownfortheelegantlypolishedvernacularsonnetsequenceoftheCanzoniere抒情诗集)andhisfriendandcontemporaryBoccaccio薄伽丘(authoroftheDecameron).FifteenthcenturywritersmadeextensivetranslationsfrombothLatinandGreek.ItalianRenaissancepaintingexercisedadominantinfluenceonsubsequentEuropeanpaintingforcenturiesafterwards,withartistssuchasMichelangelo,Raphael,LeonardodaVinci,andTitian提香.Thesameistrueforarchitecture.TheirworksincludeFlorenceCathedral,St.Peter’sBasilicainRome,andmanyothers.Finally,theAldine阿尔定Press,foundedbytheprinterAldoManuzio,activeinVenice,developedItalictype斜体活字andthesmall,relativelyportableandinexpensiveprintedbookthatcouldbecarriedinone’spocket,aswellasbeingthefirsttopublisheditionsofbooksinAncientGreek.Yetsomepresent-dayhistoriansalsoseetheeraasoneofthebeginningofeconomicregression倒退forItaly(duetotheopeningupoftheAtlantictraderoutesandrepeatedforeigninvasions)andoflittleprogressinexperimentalscience,whichmadeitsgreatleapsforwardamongProtestantcultureinthe17thcentury.
I.Origins
1.NorthernItalyintheLateMiddleAges
BytheendoftheMiddleAges,centralandsouthernItaly,theheartlandoftheRomanEmpire,waspoorerthanthenorth.Romewasacitydominatedbyancientruins,andthePapalStates教会辖区werealooselyadministeredregionwithlittlelawandorder,duetothepopehavingrelocatedtoAvignonunderpressurefromKingPhiliptheFairofFrance.Inthesouth,Naples,SicilyandSardiniahadforsometimebeenunderforeigndomination,bytheArabsandthentheNormans.SicilyhadprosperedforseveralcenturiesduringtheEmirateofSicilyandtheearlyKingdomofSicily,withPalermobeingthelargestcityinItalyandoneofthelargestinEurope,buthaddeclinedbytheendoftheMiddleAges.
Thenortheventuallybecamefarmoreprosperous,withthestatesofnorthernItalyamongthewealthiestinEurope.TheCrusadeshadbuiltlastingtradelinkstotheLevant,andtheFourthCrusadehaddonemuchtodestroytheByzantineEmpireasacommercialrivaltotheVenetiansandGenoese.ThemaintraderoutesfromtheeastpassedthroughtheByzantineEmpireortheArablandsandonwardstotheportsofGenoa,Pisa,andVenice.LuxurygoodsboughtintheLevant,suchasspices,dyes,andsilkswereimportedtoItalyandthenresoldthroughoutEurope.Moreover,theinlandcity-statesprofitedfromtherichagriculturallandofthePo波河valley.FromFrance,Germany,andtheLowCountries,throughthemediumoftheChampagnefairs,landandrivertraderoutesbroughtgoodssuchaswool,wheat,andpreciousmetalsintotheregion.TheextensivetradethatstretchedfromEgypttotheBalticgeneratedsubstantialsurplusesthatallowedsignificantinvestmentinminingandagriculture.Thus,whilenorthernItalywasnotricherinresourcesthanmanyotherpartsofEurope,thelevelofdevelopment,stimulatedbytrade,allowedittoprosper.FlorencebecameoneofthewealthiestcitiesofNorthernItaly,duemainlytoitswoolentextileproduction,underthesupervisionofitsdominanttradeguild.WoolwasimportedfromNorthernEurope(andinthe16thcenturyfromSpain)anddyesfromtheeastwereusedtomakehighqualitytextiles.
TheItaliantraderoutesthatcoveredtheMediterraneanandbeyondwerealsomajorconduits渠道ofcultureandknowledge.InmedievaltimesworksthatembodiedtheclassicallearningoftheGreekshadtrickledintoWesternEurope,throughArabtranslationsandtreatises叙事,especiallyintheso-calledRenaissanceofthe12thcentury.AftertheSpanishReconquistaofthe15thcenturyandtheresultingtranslationsofArabic-languageworks,thescientific,philosophicalandmathematicalthinkingoftheArabsbecameaccessibletoNorthernItaly.AftertheFallofConstantinoplein1453,afloodofrefugeeGreekscholarswasimportantinsparkingthenewlinguisticstudiesoftheRenaissance.HumanistscholarssearchedmonasticlibrariesforancientmanuscriptsandrecoveredTacitus古罗马史学家塔西佗andotherLatinauthors;withtherediscoveryofVitruvius古罗马建筑师维特鲁威thearchitecturalprinciplesofAntiquitycouldbeobservedoncemore,andRenaissanceartistswereencouraged,intheatmosphereofhumanistoptimism,toexceltheachievementsoftheAncientsofwhomtheyread.
2.13th-century
TheStatesofItalyduringtheRenaissance,c.1494
Inthe13thcentury,muchofEuropeexperiencedstrongeconomicgrowth.ThetraderoutesoftheItalianstateslinkedwiththoseofestablishedMediterraneanportsandeventuallytheHanseaticLeagueoftheBalticandnorthernregionsofEuropetocreateanetworkeconomyinEuropeforthefirsttimesincethe4thcentury.Thecity-statesofItalyexpandedgreatlyduringthisperiodandgrewinpowertobecomeindependentoftheHolyRomanEmpire;apartfromtheKingdomofNaples,outsidepowerskepttheirarmiesoutofItaly.Duringthisperiod,themoderncommercialinfrastructuredeveloped,withdouble-entrybook-keeping复式记账,jointstockcompanies,aninternationalbankingsystem,asystematizedforeignexchangemarket,insurance,andgovernmentdebt.Florencebecamethecentreofthisfinancialindustryandthegoldflorin弗罗林金币becamethemaincurrencyofinternationaltrade.
Thenewmercantilegoverningclass,whogainedtheirpositionthroughfinancialskill,adaptedtotheirpurposesthefeudalaristocraticmodelthathaddominatedEuropeintheMiddleAges.AfeatureoftheHighMiddleAgesinNorthernItalywastheriseoftheurbancommuneswhichhadbrokenfromthecontrolbybishopsandlocalcounts.Inmuchoftheregion,thelandednobilitywaspoorerthantheurbanpatriarchsintheHighMedievalmoneyeconomywhoseinflationaryriseleftland-holdingaristocratsimpoverished.TheincreaseintradeduringtheearlyRenaissanceenhancedthesecharacteristics.Thedeclineoffeudalismandtheriseofcitiesinfluencedeachother;forexample,thedemandforluxurygoodsledtoanincreaseintrade,whichledtogreaternumbersoftradesmenbecomingwealthy,who,inturn,demandedmoreluxurygoods.ThischangealsogavethemerchantsalmostcompletecontrolofthegovernmentsoftheItaliancity-states,againenhancingtrade.Oneofthemostimportanteffectsofthispoliticalcontrolwassecurity.Thosethatgrewextremelywealthyinafeudalstateranconstantriskofrunningafoulof相冲突themonarchyandhavingtheirlandsconfiscated充公.Thenorthernstatesalsokeptmanymedievallawsthatseverelyhampered阻碍commerce,suchasthoseagainstusury高利贷,andprohibitionsontradingwithnon-Christians.Inthecity-statesofItaly,theselawswererepealedorrewritten.
3.14th-centurycollapse
The14thcenturysawaseriesofcatastrophesthatcausedtheEuropeaneconomytogointorecession.TheMedievalWarmPeriodwasendingasthetransitiontotheLittleIceAgebegan.Thischangeinclimatesawagriculturaloutputdeclinesignificantly,leadingtorepeatedfamines,exacerbated加剧bytherapidpopulationgrowthoftheearlierera.TheHundredYear’WarbetweenEnglandandFrancedisrupted扰乱tradethroughoutnorthwestEurope,mostnotablywhen,in1345,KingEdwardIIIofEnglandrefusedtopayhisdebts,contributingtothecollapseofthetwolargestFlorentinebanks,thoseoftheBardiandPeruzzi.Intheeast,warwasalsodisruptingtraderoutes,astheOttomanEmpirebegantoexpandthroughouttheregion.MostdevastatingwastheBlackDeaththatreducedthepopulationsofthedenselypopulatedcitiesofNorthernItalyandreturnedatintervalsthereafter.Florence,forinstance,whichhadapre-plaguepopulationof45,000decreasedoverthenext47yearsby25–50%.Widespreaddisorderfollowed,includingarevoltofFlorentinetextileworkersin1378.
ItwasduringthisperiodofinstabilitythatthefirstRenaissancefigures,suchasDanteandPetrarchlived,andthefirstsignsofRenaissanceartweretobeseenintheopeninghalfofthe14thcentury,notablyintherealismofGiotto乔托.P
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