专八人文 语言学概编.docx
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专八人文 语言学概编.docx
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专八人文语言学概编
EnglishLinguistics
1.Introduction
1.1WhatisLanguage?
1)"Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols."--Sapir's
2)"Languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols."--Hal's
3)"FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements."--Chomsky's
Langueisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
1.2WhatisLinguistics?
Linguisticsisascientificstudywhichbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.
1.3TheScopeofLinguistics
Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Thisdealswithbasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.Thespecificsubcategoriesoflinguisticsarephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatic,sociolinguistic,psycholinguistics,andappliedlinguistics.
1.4PrescriptiveandDescriptive
Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor"correctandstandard"behaviorsinusinglanguage,itissaidtobeprescriptive.
1.5SynchronicandDiachronic
Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageinsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimesisadiachronicstudy.
1.6FiveDesignFeaturesofLanghage
1)Arbitrariness-nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:
rumble,crackle,bang...;Chinese:
putong,shasha,dingdang...).
2)Productivity/creativity--Peculiartohumanlanguages,usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.
3)Duality--Lower-levelsounds(meaningless)andHigher-levelmeaning(largerunitsofmeaning).Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.
4)Displacement--Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:
realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.
5)Cuhuraltransmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).
2.Phonetics
2.1WhatisPhonology?
Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.
2.2WhatareThethreeBranchesofPhonetics?
Thesethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabeledarticulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,andacousticphonetics.
1)Articulatoryphonetics--fromthespeakers'pointofview,"howspeakersproducespeechsounds";
2)Auditoryphonetics--fromthehearers'pointofview,"howsoundsareperceived";
3)Acousticphonetics--fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.
2.3OrgansofSpeech
Speechorgansconsistofthreeimportantareas:
1)Pharyngealcavity--thethroat;
2)Theoralcavity--themouth;
3)Nasalcavity--thenose.
2.4WhatisOrthographicRepresentationofSpeechSounds?
ThestandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(1PA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Therearetwocategories-broadtranscriptionwhichisusedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,andnarrowtranscriptionwhichisusedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics.
2.5WhataretheMajorArticulatoryVariables?
Theyarevoicing(voiced/voiceless),nasality(nasal/non-nasal),andaspiration(aspirated/unaspirated).
2.6ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSounds
Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:
VowelsandConsonants.
3.Phonology
3.1WhatisPhonology?
Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.
3.2WhataretheDistinctionofPhoneticsandPhonology?
Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage--thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:
howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.
Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
3.3WhatarePhone,Phoneme,andAllophone?
Aphonemeansaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.
Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext.Thesmallestphoneticunitinalanguagethatiscapableofconveyingadistinctioninmeaning,asthemofmatandthebofbatinEnglish.音位,音素:
语言中最小的语音单位,可以表达意义上的区别,如英语里mat中的m和bat中的b
Allophonesarethephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenviromnents.Itisapredictablephoneticvariantofaphoneme.Forexample,theaspiratedtoftop,theunaspiratedtofstop,andthett(pronouncedd)ofbatterareallophonesoftheEnglishphonemet.音位变体:
音素的可测语音变体,如送气音t在top中,非送气音t在stop中,还有tt(发成d)在batter中,都属于英语音素t的变体
3.4WhatisPhonemicContrast?
Phonemiccontrastmeansdifferentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[but]and[put]."
3.5WhatisComplementaryDistribution?
Complementarydistributionmeansallophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementary
distribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.
dark[1]andclear[1],aspirated[p]andunaspirated[p].
3.6WhatisMinimalPair?
Minimalpairmeanswhentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.bitandpit.
3.7SomeRulesofPhonology
Sequentialrules,assimilationrulesanddeletionrules.
3.8WhatisSequentialRules?
Sequentialrulesaretherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,
e.g.inEnglish.'"kbi1"mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[1]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.
a)thefirstphonememustbe/s/,
b)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,
c)thethirdphonememustbe/1/or/r/or/w/.
[ŋ]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishorStandardChinese.
3.9WhatisAssimilation?
Assimilationrulemeansassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby"copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g./i:
/isnasalizedinwordslikebeen,andgreen.
3.10WhatisDeletion?
Ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.
3.11WhatareSuprasegmentalFeatures?
Suprasegmentalfeaturesmeansthephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):
stress,toneandintonation.
4.Morphology
4.1WhatisMorphology?
Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
4.2WhataretheTwoClassesofWords?
Openclasswords--contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet.
Closedclasswords-grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.
4.3WhatareMorphemes?
Themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.语素:
一种含有一个单词的有意义的语言单位,如人或一词素,如-ed在单词walked中,不能被划分为更小的有意义单位.Therearetwotypesofmorphemes:
boundmorphemesandfreemorphemes.Freemorphemeisonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorphemeisonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas"-s"in"dogs","al"in"national","dis-"in"disclose","ed"in"recorded",etc.
4.4WhatareAffix?
Prefixismorphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis-,anti-,ir-,etc,andsuffixmeansmorphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-hess,-able,-tive,tion,etc.Traditionallly,prefixeshavebeencalledboundmorphemes.
4.5WhatareDerivationalMorphemeandInflectionalMorpheme?
Derivationalmorphemes--themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern--modernize,length--lengthen,fool--foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes-themorphemeswhichareforthemostpart
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