现代心脏病学2.docx
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现代心脏病学2.docx
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现代心脏病学2
ClinicalFindings
A.HISTORY
Theevaluationofheartdiseaseinpregnancymaybecomedifficultduetothenormalanatomicandphysiologicchangesofpregnancy.Acarefulhistorytakingthereforebecomesmoreimportantandshouldincludeahistoryofrheumaticfever,valvulardisorder,arrhythmia,congenitalheartdisease,coronaryriskfactorsorestablishedcoronaryarterydisease,andcardiacsurgery.
Reducedexercisetoleranceandfatiguearethemostcommonsymptomsreportedinpregnantwomen,probablyduetoincreasedbodyweightandanemia.Dizziness,light-headedness,orevensyncopalepisodesmayoccurduringthelatterpartofpregnancybecausemechanicalcompressionoftheuterusontheinferiorvenacavadecreasesvenousreturn,andthusthecardiacoutput.Palpitationsarealsoafrequentcomplaintbutusuallyarenotassociatedwithasignificantarrhythmia.Dyspneaandorthopnea,probablyduetohyperventilation,arealsoreported.
B.PHYSICALEXAMINATION
Thephysicalexaminationofpregnantpatientswithnormalcardiovascularsystemschangesbecauseoftheincreasedhemodynamicburden.Theevaluationofpatientswithsuspectedheartdiseaseduringpregnancyrequiresathoroughknowledgeofthenormalphysiologicchanges.
Anormalpregnantpatienthasaslightlyfastrestingheartrate,largepulse,slightlywidenedpulsepressure,andwarmextremities.Thejugularvenousdistentionisseenfromthetwentiethweek.Edemaoftheanklesandlegsiscommonlyencounteredinlatepregnancy.Aprominentbutunsustainedleftventricularimpulsemaybepalpatedinlatepregnancyandmaysimulatethevolumeoverloadseeninaorticormitralregurgitation.Theauscultatoryfindingsofnormalpregnancybeginlateinthefirsttrimesterandusuallydisappear2–4weeksafterdelivery.Duringcardiacauscultation,thefirstheartsoundisloudandexhibitsanexaggeratedsplitting.Thesecondheartsoundduringlatepregnancyisoftenincreasedandmayexhibitpersistentexpiratorysplitting,especiallywiththepatientintheleftlateralposition.Athirdheartsoundhasbeenreportedtobefrequentinlatepregnancy.However,becauseofitsassociationwithheartfailure,thepresenceofathirdheartsoundshouldleadtofurtherinvestigationofunderlyingheartdisease,especiallyinwomenwithsymptomsandothersignssuggestiveofheartdisease.Afourthheartsoundisrarelyheardduringanormalpregnancy.
Systolicmurmursarecommonduringpregnancyandresultfromtheincreasedbloodvolumeandhyperkineticstate.Mostfrequentlytheyareinnocentmidsystolicmurmurs,grade1–2/6,thatarebestheardatthelowerleftsternalborderandoverthepulmonaryarea,radiatingtothesuprasternalnotchortotheleftoftheneck.Theyusuallyrepresentvibrationscreatedbyejectionofbloodintothepulmonarytrunk.Acervicalvenoushumormammarysouffléheardbestintherightsupraclavicularareainasupinepositionisabenignsystolic,oracontinuous,murmuroccurringinlatepregnancy.Diastolicheartmurmursareunusualandusuallyrepresentvalvularabnormalities(Table31–5).
Table31–5.Cardiovascularsignsandsymptomsinnormalpregnancy.
1.Diagnosticdifficulties—Problemsindiagnosisencounteredduringphysicalexaminationsareoftenduetothenormalphysiologicchangesofpregnancy.Cardiacauscultationmaybeparticularlyconfusinginpregnantpatients.Alongwithinnocentsystolicmurmursheardinmanynormalpregnantwomen,benignvascularmurmursarealsoheard.Thesemurmurscanbedifferentiatedfromthoseofcardiacoriginbytheirdisappearancewhenpressureisappliedwiththestethoscopeorwhenthepatientsitsupright,buttheycanbeeasilymisinterpreted.
Althoughsystolicmurmursarecommon,thefindingofadiastolicmurmurisrareduringanormalpregnancyandshouldwarrantfurtherdiagnosticevaluation.Bothsystolicanddiastolicmurmursassociatedwithcardiacdiseasecanincreaseordecreaseinintensityduringpregnancy.Thesystolicmurmursofaorticorpulmonicstenosisusuallyincreaseinintensitybecauseoftheincreasedcardiacoutputandbloodvolume.Thediastolicmurmurofmitralstenosisisalsoincreasedandmayevenbefirstdetectedduringpregnancy.Theaugmentedbloodvolumeandtheincreasedheartrateofpregnancyshortenthediastolicfillingperiodandincreasetherateofbloodflowacrossthemitralvalve.Incontrast,murmursofmitraloraorticregurgitationmaysoftenorevendisappearduringpregnancyasaresultofthedecreaseinperipheralvascularresistance.Thecirculatorychangesofpregnancyalsoaffecttheauscultatoryfindingsincardiacabnormalities,suchasmitralvalveprolapseandhypertrophiccardiomyopathy,whicharedependentonvolume.Theincreaseinleftventricularvolumeduringpregnancymayattenuateorabolishtheclickandlatesystolicmurmurtypicalofmitralvalveprolapse.Thesystolicmurmurofhypertrophicobstructivecardiomyopathymayalsodecreaseordisappearastheleftventricularvolumeincreasesduringpregnancy.Thediagnosisofinfectiveendocarditisduringpregnancymaybedifficult.Feverispresentinmorethan95%ofpatientswithendocarditis;however,thehemodynamicchangesassociatedwithpregnancymakecardiacmurmurscommon,andpreviouslyexistingmurmursmaydiminishinintensity.Ahighindexofsuspicionisthereforenecessarytomakethediagnosisofinfectiveendocarditisinpregnantpatients.Themostusefulclinicalfindingsarefever,murmur,evidenceofpreexistingcardiacdisease,andpositivebloodcultures.
C.DIAGNOSTICSTUDIES
1.Chestradiography—Theusefulnessofchestfilmsduringpregnancyislimitedbecauseofthepotentialhazardtothefetusfromradiationexposure.Wheneverachestfilmisbelievednecessary,theabdominopelvicareashouldbeshieldedwithleadtominimizeexposure.Thenormalcardiacchangesofpregnancy,suchaschamberenlargementandthehorizontalpositionoftheheartbecauseoftheelevationofthediaphragm,shouldnotbemisinterpretedascardiacdisease.NewerandmoreaccuratetechniquessuchasDopplerechocardiographyhavelargelyreplacedchestfilmsintheevaluationofcardiacstructureandfunction.
2.Electrocardiography—Theelectrocardiogramisanimportantdiagnostictechniquethatcanindicatethepresenceofunderlyingcardiacabnormalities.Cardiacchamberhypertrophy,myocardialischemiaandinfarction,pericarditis,myocarditis,conductionabnormalities,andthepresenceofatrialandventriculararrhythmiasmaybedetectedbyelectrocardiography.Inpatientswithsuspectedcardiacarrhythmias,ambulatoryHoltermonitoringmaybeindicated.Duringnormalpregnancy,sinustachycardia,ashiftoftheaxistotheleftorrightmaybeobserved,andtransientSTabnormalitiesarecommon.
3.Echocardiography—Transthoracicechocardiographyisanimportantdiagnosticnoninvasivestudy,whichcanbeperformedsafelyinpregnancy.Theintracardiacstructurescanbeevaluatedforabnormalitiesofthegreatvessels,cardiacchambers,andheartvalves.Chambersizesandventricularfunctioncanalsobemeasured.
Duringtheechocardiographicexamination,thenormalphysiologicchangesthatoccurwithpregnancyshouldbekeptinmind.Whenthepatientisevaluatedintheleftlateralposition,anincreaseinthediastolicdimensionsoftherightandleftventriclesiscommonbecauseofvolumeincreasesthatoccurwithanormalpregnancy.Becauseoftheincreaseintheleftventriculardimensions,mitralvalveprolapsemayimproveordisappearduringpregnancy.Rightandleftatrialdimensionsmayalsoincreaseslightly;thesechangesincreaseasthepregnancyprogresses.Smallpericardialeffusionshavebeennotedinlatepregnancyinhealthywomen.
Two-dimensionalechocardiographygivesdiagnosticinformationaboutthecauseofthevalvularabnormalityanditsassociatedeffectsonventricularsizeandfunction.Dopplerechocardiographyprovidesreliablequantitativeandqualitativeinformationregardingthepresenceandseverityofvalvularstenosisandregurgitation.Dopplerechocardiographycanmeasurethevalveareaandgradientsacrossstenoticvalves.Smalldegreesofpulmonary,tricuspid,andmitralregurgitationhavefrequentlybeenfoundinnormalindividuals,whetherpregnantornot.Inpatientswithcongenitalheartdisease(correctedoruncorrected)Dopplerechocardiographycandetectthepresenceofintracardiacshuntsandestimatetheshuntratiosbydeterminingtherightandleftcardiacoutputs.Itcanmeasurepulmonaryarterysystolicpressuretoassesstheeffectsofthevalvularlesionsandintracardiacshuntsonthepulmonarycirculation.
Transesophagealechocardiography(TEE)providessuperiorimagesoftheintracardiacstructuresandgreatvessels,providingthesamedetailedanalysisofcardiacstructure,function,andhemodynamicassessmentpossiblewithtransthoracicechocardiography.TEEcanbeusedforpatientsinwhomthetransthoracicexaminationistechnicallysuboptimalandforthosewithsuspectedprostheticornativevalvedysfunction,infectiveendocarditis,congenitalheartdisease,oraorticdissection.AlthoughexperiencewithTEEduringpregnancyhasbeenlimited,theprocedureshouldbeconsideredinpregnantpatientsforwhomtherisksarelessthanthepossiblebenefit.Theprocedureshouldbeperformedbyanexperiencedechocardiographer,andfetalmonitoring,inadditiontotheroutinemonitoringofthepatient,shouldbeavailable(Table31–6).
Table31–6.Diagnostictestfindingsinpregnancy.
4.Exercisetolerancetest—Littleisknownaboutthesafetyofanexercisetesttoestablishischemicheartdiseaseinpregnancy.Fetalbradycardia,markedhypoxia,acidosis,andseverehypothermiaatpeakexercisehavebeenreported.Inlightofthesefacts,theus
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