unit 4.docx
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unit 4.docx
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unit4
Unit 4
BackgroundInformation
GreekCulture
ClassicalGreeceisthesourcefromwhichmanyofthecharacteristicelementsofWesternculturederive,andthereforeitmakessensetoexaminethisculture.EpicpoetrygoesbacktoHomer,thatis,totheearliestperiodofpreservedGreekliterature.ButmostliteraryworkcomesfromAthens.Inparticular,theFifthcenturyinAthenswasthesceneforthedevelopmentofmanyliterarygenres.DramawasdevelopedbythetragediansofAthens(Aescylus,Sophocles,Euripides),comedybyAristophanes.ThewritingofhistorybeginswithHerodotusandThucydides.Modernphilosophygoesbacktothefourth-centuryauthorsPlatoandAristotle,thoughtheyhaveanumberofimportantpredecessors.ManyoftheformsofWesternartandarchitectureweowetotheGreeks.
CharacteristicsofGreekThought
WhatwasitabouttheGreeksthatmadethemsoinfluentialinthedevelopmentofhumanthought?
TherearethreeverycharacteristicaspectsofGreekculturethatledthemtosuchfruitfulresultsinsomanyaspectsoflife.
1)Curiosity
First,theGreekswereverycurious.Mostnationsinantiquityhadsomeformofexplanationforwhythingsareastheyare,andonthewholepeopletooktheworldforgranted.NottheGreeks.Theywerestronglyinterestedinabstractquestionsthatwerenotraisedbyothers.Wheredidtheworldcomefrom?
Whatisthepurposeofhumanexistence?
Whatisthebestwaytoorganizehumansociety?
ThissortofinquiryneverappealedmuchtotheRomanmind,forinstance.WhenHerodotussawatempleinEgyptthatseemedtohimtoindicatethattheGreeksborrowedtheirworshipofhimfromthere,hemadeaspecialtriptoatempleinPhoenicia,andanothertoatempleontheislandofThasostoinvestigatethequestion.
2)PowerofObservation
ThesecondcharacteristicoftheGreeksisacuityofobservation.Thistookplaceontwolevels.TheGreekswerekeenobserversofthenaturalworld.Anaximandernoticedfossilsofsealifeinthemountains,andusedthisfactinhisexplanationoftheoriginoftheworld.Onanotherlevel,theGreekswereawareofthevarietyofhumaninstitutions.ThisconceptionencouragedtheGreekstocomeupwiththeirownexplanationsforwhythingsareastheyare,andtoattempttoimproveuponthepresentstateofthings.
3)(Over)relianceonthePowersofReasoning
Finally,asalientcharacteristicoftheancientGreeksisawiderespectforhumanreasonandanattempttouseitasavehicletoexplainexistence.Inpart,thisreasonwasuseddeductively.ThismeansthatreasonwasusedtointerpretrigorouslythefactswhichtheGreeksobserved—forinstance,therealizationthattheworldisnotunchangingwasbasedupontheobservationoffossilsofsealifeinthemountains.Ontheotherhand,theGreekshadatendencytouseabstractreasoninginastonishingdisregardofobservablereality.Thus,onegetsphilosopherswhoarguethatnomotionispossibleandthatthereforenothingreallymoves,andotherphilosopherswhoarguethateverythingisinmotionandnothingstandsstill.Eitherway,abstractreasoningisusedtoreachconclusionsatvariancewithobservablereality,andthusitisconcludedonthebasisofpreconceivednotionsthattherealityweseeisakindoffigment.Tosomeextent,theGreekswere“toocleverbyhalf.”Butreallytheirestablishmentofthemodernphilosophicalmodeofthinkingisanastonishingfeatinitself,allthemoresoinlightofthefactthatmodernphilosophywasdevelopedfromscratchinthespaceofabout250years.
InfluenceofGreekThought
ThustheGreeksarethefountainheadofourmodernwayofviewingtheworld.Humanreasoncanbeusedtointerprethumanaffairsinlightofalogicalhumandevelopment.ThisviewwaspassedontotheRomans,andinlateantiquitythetheologyoftheChristianchurchwasfusedwiththistraditionofpaganrationalismandhumanism.ThismademedievalwesternChristianitymuchlessabstractlytheologicalthanwouldotherwisehavebeenthecase.Duringtherenaissance,whendirectknowledgeofGreektextswasrevivedinthewest,theGreeksexertedamoredirectinfluenceonwesternthinking.ItishardtounderestimatethesignificanceofGreekthoughtonthemodernworld.
SummaryofImportantPoints
∙Westernphilosophy,tragedyandhistorystartwiththeGreeks.
∙TheGreekswerehighlyintellectual,usingakeenpowerofobservationtoexaminetheworldasitis,butatthesametimebuildingelaboratetheoriesto“explain”theworldevenwhenobservablerealityindicatesthecontrary.
∙Inthefifthcenturyaroseagroupofintellectualscalledthesophists.Theyclaimedtobeabletoteachintellectualvirtuosityandwerefundamentallyamoral,assertingthatallhumaninstitutions,includingmorality,weremereconventions.
∙Socratesattackedthesophists,claimingthatthe“good”wasabsoluteandthatevilwasmerelytheresultofignorance.HisformofquestioningpeoplemadetheAtheniansuneasy,andtheycondemnedhimtodeathbecauseinhistrialhedirectlyinsultedthedemocraticformofgovernment.
RomeCulture
I.Romanculturalachievementsinart,literature,philosophyandreligionweregreatlyinfluencedbytheGreekcultureandshowverylittleoriginality.OnlyintheareaoflawdotheRomansprovideasignificantnewcontribution.
II.RomanArchitecture
1. Romanarchitectureisveryutilitarianandsimple.
2. Thevaultandarchareperfected.
3. Greatestartisticcontributionwasthedevelopmentofcement.
4. ManygreatexamplesofRomanarchitectureexistincluding(A)Aqueducts;(B)CeremonialarchessuchasTrajan’s;(C)Colosseum;(D)CircusMaximus;(E)Romanbaths.
III.RomanliteratureisverysimilartoGreekliterature.
1. Lucretius(95-55BC):
Philosopherwhose“OntheNatureofThings”wasearlyEpicureanclassic.
2. Horace(65-8BC):
Poetwhose“Odes”basedonearlyRomanmythologysetthestandardforRomanpoetry.
3. Vergil(70BC-19AD):
ThegreatestRomanepicpoet.His“Aeneid”iscomparedtothe“Odyessy”.
4. Petronious(?
-66AD):
Romansatiristwhose“Satyricon”wasoneofthemostoriginalpiecesofancientliterature.
5. Tacitus(55-117AD):
Romanhistorianwhose“Annals”providesuswithmuchinformationaboutAugustus.
6. Plutarch(46-120AD):
Biographerwhose“ParallelLivesofFamousRomansandGreeks”isaclassic.
7. Suetonious(75-150AD):
Historianwhose“LivesoftheTwelveCaesar’s”althoughgossipyandunsubstaniated,providesuswithanunusuallookintothelivesofthecaesars.
8. Josephus(37-95AD):
Jewishhistorianwhose“JewishAntiquities”givesusmuchinformationabouttheearlyChristianchurchandprovidesuswithanindependentdocumentationofJesus.
IV.Romanlawdevelopsasoneoftheuniquecontributionstowesterncivilization.
1. Threebasictypesoflawdevelops.
2. “JusCivile”:
Domesticorcivillawwherebypeoplecouldsettletheirdisputesoverpropertyormorals.
3. “JusGentium”:
Criminallawwhichprovidedthebasisformostwesterncriminallaw.
4. “JusNaturale”:
TheconceptofnaturallawwhichstatesthatthelawsofGod(s)surpassedallothers.ThishadagreatimpactonChristianityandphilosophyoftheEnlightenmentperiod.
India’sCulture
Withabout800dialectsand15officiallyrecognizedlanguages,severalreligionsincludingHinduism,Islam,Christianity,Jainism,Buddhism,Sikhism,ZorastrianismandJudaism,variousstylesofart,architecture,literature,musicanddance,andseverallifestylesfromtheurbanandruraltothetribal,Indiaisameltingpotofculturaldiversity.
Indianmusicspansvarioustraditions,fromfolksongsandmusic,whichvariesfromregiontoregion,tribalmusic,classicalandsemi-classicaltraditionsandpopularmusic.Therearetworecognizedstylesofclassicalmusic—theHindustani(northernIndia)styleandtheCarnaticstyleofSouthIndia.Eachalsohasitsdedicatedinstruments—tonamejustafew,Hindustanimusichasthesitar,sarod,sur-bahaar,bansuri,shahnaiandtheviolinwhileCarnaticmusiciansgenerallyusetheveena,venu,nagasvaram,gottuvadyamortheviolinasthemainmelodyinstrument.Percussionandotheraccompanyinginstrumentsareequallyvaried.Vocaltraditionsinbothclassicalstylesarealsodifferent.Broadlyspeaking,CarnaticmusicisdevotionalinnaturewhiletheHindustanistyleissecular.Apartfromthesetraditions,therearevarioussemi-classicalstyles(suchasghazalsandqawwalis)andalsoarichveinofpopularmusictypifiedinsongsfromIndianfilmswhicharegenerallymusicals.
Indiandancehasanunbrokentraditionofover2000years,withthemesdrawnfrommythology,legendsandclassicalliterature.Italsocanbebroadlydividedintofolkortribaldanceswhichhavemanyregionalvariations,andtheclassicaldances,whicharebasedonancienttextsandhaverigidrulesofpresentation.SomeofthemajorclassicaldancetraditionsareBharataNatyam,Kathak,Odissi,Manipuri,Kuchipudi,MohiniattamandKathakali.
IndianliteraturecandateitsoriginstotheoraltraditionoftheVedasandthegreatepicsofIndia,whicharestillanintegralpartofdailylife.Poetry,drama,fiction,non-fictionandallotherliterarystyleshaveasubstantialcorpusineachofIndia’smajorlanguagesandinquiteafewdialects,whiletheoraltraditionalsocontinuesthroughfolksongsanddramas.TheatreinIndiaalsohasancienthistoricalroots,thoughclassicaltheatreisperformedveryrarelynowadays,havingbeenovertakenbyavibranttraditionoffolktheatre(includingpuppetandshadowtheatre)andmodernprofessionaltheatre,whichdrawsnotonlydramaswritteninanyIndianl
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