考研英语完型填空新题型题源.docx
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考研英语完型填空新题型题源.docx
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考研英语完型填空新题型题源
2017年考研英语完型填空、新题型题源
的更新!
2017年考研英语完型填空、新题型题源
WouldaWork-FreeWorldBeSoBad?
Peoplehavespeculatedforcenturiesaboutafuturewithoutwork,andtodayisnodifferent,withacademics,writers,andactivistsonceagainwarningthattechnologyisreplacinghumanworkers.Someimaginethatthecomingwork-freeworldwillbedefinedbyinequality:
Afewwealthypeoplewillownallthecapital,andthemasseswillstruggleinanimpoverishedwasteland.
Adifferent,lessparanoid,andnotmutuallyexclusivepredictionholdsthatthefuturewillbeawastelandofadifferentsort,onecharacterizedbypurposelessness:
Withoutjobstogivetheirlivesmeaning,peoplewillsimplybecomelazyanddepressed.Indeed,today’sunemployeddon’tseemtobehavingagreattime.OneGalluppollfoundthat20percentofAmericanswhohavebeenunemployedforatleastayearreporthavingdepression,doubletherateforworkingAmericans.Also,someresearchsuggeststhattheexplanationforrisingratesofmortality,mental-healthproblems,andaddictionamongpoorly-educated,middle-agedpeopleisashortageofwell-paidjobs.Anotherstudyshowsthatpeopleareoftenhappieratworkthanintheirfreetime.Perhapsthisiswhymanyworryabouttheagonizingdullnessofajoblessfuture.
Butitdoesn’tnecessarilyfollowfromfindingslikethesethataworldwithoutworkwouldbefilledwithmalaise.Suchvisionsarebasedonthedownsidesofbeingunemployedinasocietybuiltontheconceptofemployment.Intheabsenceofwork,asocietydesignedwithotherendsinmindcouldyieldstrikinglydifferentcircumstancesforthefutureoflaborandleisure.Today,thevirtueofworkmaybeabitoverblown.“Manyjobsareboring,degrading,unhealthy,andasquanderingofhumanpotential,”saysJohnDanaher,alecturerattheNationalUniversityofIrelandinGalwaywhohaswrittenaboutaworldwithoutwork.“Globalsurveysfindthatthevastmajorityofpeopleareunhappyatwork.”
Thesedays,becauseleisuretimeisrelativelyscarceformostworkers,peopleusetheirfreetimetocounterbalancetheintellectualandemotionaldemandsoftheirjobs.“WhenIcomehomefromahardday’swork,Ioftenfeeltired,”Danahersays,adding,“InaworldinwhichIdon’thavetowork,Imightfeelratherdifferent”—perhapsdifferentenoughtothrowhimselfintoahobbyorapassionprojectwiththeintensityusuallyreservedforprofessionalmatters.
Havingajobcanprovideameasureoffinancialstability,butinadditiontostressingoverhowtocoverlife’snecessities,today’sjoblessarefrequentlymadetofeellikesocialoutcasts.“Peoplewhoavoidworkareviewedasparasitesandleeches,”Danahersays.Perhapsasaresultofthisculturalattitude,formostpeople,self-esteemandidentityaretiedupintricatelywiththeirjob,orlackofjob.
Plus,inmanymodern-daysocieties,unemploymentcanalsobedownrightboring.Americantownsandcitiesaren’treallybuiltforlotsoffreetime:
Publicspacestendtobesmallislandsinseasofprivateproperty,andtherearen’tmanyplaceswithoutentryfeeswhereadultscanmeetnewpeopleorcomeupwithwaystoentertainoneanother.
Therootsofthisboredommayrunevendeeper.PeterGray,aprofessorofpsychologyatBostonCollegewhostudiestheconceptofplay,thinksthatifworkdisappearedtomorrow,peoplemightbeatalossforthingstodo,growingboredanddepressedbecausetheyhaveforgottenhowtoplay.“Weteachchildrenadistinctionbetweenplayandwork,”Grayexplains.“Workissomethingthatyoudon’twanttodobutyouhavetodo.”Hesaysthistraining,whichstartsinschool,eventually“drillstheplay”outofmanychildren,whogrowuptobeadultswhoareaimlesswhenpresentedwithfreetime.
“Sometimespeopleretirefromtheirwork,andtheydon’tknowwhattodo,”Graysays.“They’velosttheabilitytocreatetheirownactivities.”It’saproblemthatneverseemstoplagueyoungchildren.“Therearenothree-year-oldsthataregoingtobelazyanddepressedbecausetheydon’thaveastructuredactivity,”hesays.
Butneeditbethisway?
Work-freesocietiesaremorethanjustathoughtexperiment—they’veexistedthroughouthumanhistory.Considerhunter-gatherers,whohavenobosses,paychecks,oreight-hourworkdays.Tenthousandyearsago,allhumanswerehunter-gatherers,andsomestillare.DanielEverett,ananthropologistatBentleyUniversity,inMassachusetts,studiedagroupofhunter-gathersintheAmazoncalledthePirahãforyears.AccordingtoEverett,whilesomemightconsiderhuntingandgatheringwork,hunter-gatherersdon’t.“Theythinkofitasfun,”hesays.“Theydon’thaveaconceptofworkthewaywedo.”
“It’saprettylaid-backlifemostofthetime,”Everettsays.HedescribedatypicaldayforthePirahã:
Amanmightgetup,spendafewhourscanoeingandfishing,haveabarbecue,goforaswim,bringfishbacktohisfamily,andplayuntiltheevening.Suchsubsistencelivingissurelynotwithoutitsownsetofworries,buttheanthropologistMarshallSahlinsarguedina1968essaythathunter-gathersbelongedto“theoriginalaffluentsociety,”seeingastheyonly“worked”afewhoursaday;EverettestimatesthatPirahãadultsonaverageworkabout20hoursaweek(nottomentionwithoutbossespeeringovertheirshoulders).Meanwhile,accordingtotheBureauofLaborStatistics,theaverageemployedAmericanwithchildrenworksaboutninehoursaday.
Doesthisleisurelylifeleadtothedepressionandpurposelessnessseenamongsomanyoftoday’sunemployed?
“I’veneverseenanythingremotelylikedepressionthere,exceptpeoplewhoarephysicallyill,”Everettsays.“Theyhaveablast.Theyplayallthetime.”Whilemanymayconsiderworkastapleofhumanlife,workasitexiststodayisarelativelynewinventioninthecourseofthousandsofyearsofhumanculture.“Wethinkit’sbadtojustsitaroundwithnothingtodo,”saysEverett.“ForthePirahã,it’squiteadesirablestate.”
Graylikenstheseaspectsofthehunter-gathererlifestyletothecarefreeadventuresofmanychildrenindevelopedcountries,whoatsomepointinlifeareexpectedtoputawaychildishthings.Butthathasn’talwaysbeenthecase.AccordingtoGaryCross’s1990bookASocialHistoryofLeisureSince1600,freetimeintheU.S.lookedquitedifferentbeforethe18thand19thcenturies.Farmers—whichwasafairwaytodescribeahugenumberofAmericansatthattime—mixedworkandplayintheirdailylives.Therewerenomanagersoroverseers,sotheywouldswitchfluidlybetweenworking,takingbreaks,joininginneighborhoodgames,playingpranks,andspendingtimewithfamilyandfriends.Nottomentionfestivalsandothergatherings:
France,forinstance,had84holidaysayearin1700,andweatherkeptthemfromfarminganother80orsodaysayear.
Thisallchanged,writesCross,duringtheIndustrialRevolution,whichreplacedfarmswithfactoriesandfarmerswithemployees.Factoryownerscreatedamorerigidlyscheduledenvironmentthatclearlydividedworkfromplay.Meanwhile,clocks—whichwerebecomingwidespreadatthattime—begantogivelifeaquickerpace,andreligiousleaders,whotraditionallyendorsedmostfestivities,startedassociatingleisurewithsinandtriedtoreplacerowdyfestivalswithsermons.
Asworkersstartedmovingintocities,familiesnolongerspenttheirdaystogetheronthefarm.Instead,menworkedinfactories,womenstayedhomeorworkedinfactories,andchildrenwenttoschool,stayedhome,orworkedinfactoriestoo.Duringtheworkday,familiesbecamephysicallyseparated,whichaffectedthewaypeopleentertainedthemselves:
Adultsstoppedplaying“childish”gamesandsports,andthestreetsweremostlywipedcleanoffun,asmiddle-andupper-classfamiliesfoundworking-classactivitieslikecockfightinganddicegamesdistasteful.Manysuchdiversionsweresoonoutlawed.
Withworkers’oldoutletsforplayhavingdisappearedinahazeoffactorysmoke,manyofthemturnedtonew,moreurbanones.Barsbecamearefugewheretiredworkersdrankandwatchedliveshowswithsinginganddancing.IffreetimemeansbeerandTVtoalotofAmericans,thismightbewhy.
Attimes,developedsocietieshave,foraprivilegedfew,producedlifestylesthatwerenearlyasplay-filledashunter-gatherers’.Throughouthistory,aristocratswhoearnedtheirincomesimplybyowninglandspentonlyatinyportionoftheirtimemindingfinancialexigencies.AccordingtoRandolphTrumbach,aprofessorofhistoryatBaruchCollege,18th-centuryEnglisharistocratsspenttheirdaysvisitingfriends,eatingelaboratemeals,hostingsalons,hunting,writingletters,fishing,andgoingtochurch.Theyalsospentagooddealoftimeparticipatinginpolitics,withoutpay.Theirchildrenwouldlearntodance,playinstruments,speakforeignlanguages,andreadLatin.Russiannoblesfrequentlybecameintellectuals,writers,andartists.“Asa17th-centuryaristocratsaid,‘Wesitdowntoeatandriseuptoplay,forwhatisagentlemanbuthispleasure?
’”Trumbachsays.
It’sunlikelythataworldwithoutworkwouldbeabundantenoughtoprovideeveryonewithsuchlavishlifestyles.ButGrayinsiststhatinjectinganyamountofadditionalplayintopeople’sliveswouldbeagoodthing,because,contrarytothat17th-centuryaristocrat,playisaboutmorethanpleasure.Throughplay,Graysays,children(aswellasadults)learnhowtostrategize,createnewmentalconnections,expresstheircreativity,cooperate,overcomenarcissism,andgetalongwithotherpeople.“Malemammalstypicallyhavedifficultylivingincloseproximitytoeachother,”hesays,andplay’sharmony-promotingpropertiesmay
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