国际经济学复习资料英文版.docx
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国际经济学复习资料英文版.docx
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国际经济学复习资料英文版
Chapter3Internationalequilibrium
.Theoryofreciprocaldemand(相互需求理论)
.Celebrity:
ByJohnStuartMill(穆勒)
.Definition:
Thistheorysuggeststhattheactualpriceatwhichtradetakesplacedependsonthetradingpartners’interactingdemands.
.Thereciprocaldemandtheorythuscontendsthattheequilibriumtermsoftradedependsontherelativestrengthofeachnation’sdemandfortheothernation’sproduct.
.Iftwonationsofapproximatelythesamesizeandwithsimilartastepatternsparticipateininternationaltrade,thegainsfromwillbesharedaboutequallyaboutthem.Howeverifonenationissignificantlylargerthantheother,thelargernationattainsfewergainsfromthetrade.(importanceofbeingunimportant)(小国情况下作为不重要角色的重要性)
.Termsoftradeestimate
.Definition:
Thecommoditytermsoftrade(alsocalledbartertermsoftradeisoftenusedtomeasurethedirectionoftradegains)measurestherelationshipbetweenthepricesanationgetsforitsexportsandthepriceitpaysforitsimports.
.Estimate:
Termsoftrade=
*100
.Conclusion:
Animprovementinanation’stermsoftraderequiresthatthepricesofitsexportsriserelativetothepricesofitsimportsoverthegiventimeperiod.Conversely,adeteriorationinanation’stermsoftradeisduetoariseinitsimportpricesrelativetoitsexportpricesoveratimeperiod.(贸易条件的改善是指出口品的价格相对进口品价格上升)
.·贸易条件越是接近哪个国家国内自给自足经济下的价格水平,该国从贸易中所获得的利益就越少。
·两国间贸易条件的实际均衡水平取决于两国的相对经济实力和每一国对另一国商品的需求弹性。
Immiseratinggrowth(悲惨的经济增长或贫困化增长):
发展中国家经济增长反而使得国家福利下降。
这是由于贸易产品单一,一般为初级产品。
Chapter4Trademodelextensionsandapplication
.Factor-endowmentTheory(H-OTheory)
.DisadvantageofRicardoComparativeTheory:
.Hedidnotexplainthebasisforthesedifferencesinlaborproductivity.
.Heassumedtheexistenceofcomparativeadvantagesinhistheoreticalmodel.
.Ricardo’sassumptionofasinglefactorofproduction(labor)ruledout(排除)anexplanationofhowtradeaffectsthedistributionofincomewithinanationandwhycertaingroupsfavorfreetrade,whereasothergroupsopposeit.
.Assumption:
.Nationshavethesametastesandpreferences(demandsconditions).
.Theyusefactorsinputsthatareuniformquality(同质).
.Andtheyusethesametechnology.
.Conclusion
·Anationwillexportthatcommodityforwhichalargeamountoftherelativelyabundant(cheap)inputisused.Itwillimportthecommodityintheproductionofwhichtherelativelyscarce(expensive)inputisused.
·Thecapital-abundantcountrythusexportsthecapital-intensiveproduct,andland-abundantcountryexportstheland-intensiveproduct.
Factorendowmentdifference→PPSdifference→pricesdifferencespecialization→trade
(一国将出口那些相对密集使用其相对丰裕的要素进行生产的商品,而进口那些相对密集地使用其相对稀缺的生产要素进行生产的商品)
.Factor-priceequalization
.Conclusion
Eachnationexperiencesariseinthepriceoftheabundantfactorandafallinthepriceofthescarcefactor.(稀缺要素价格下降,丰裕要素价格上升)
.Reasons
.Theassumptionsunderlyingthefactor-endowmenttheoryarenotcompletelyborneoutintherealworld.
.Thetransportationcostsandtradebarriersmaypreventpricesfrombecomingequal.
(运输成本、关税、补贴以及其他经济政策都会使国与国之间的价格商品不同,市场是不完全竞争的,非贸易品的存在以及闲置资源……)
.Leontiefparadox(里昂惕夫之谜)
TheUnitedStatesexportswerelesscapital-intensivethanimport-competinggoods.
.Economiesofscaleandspecialization
AlthoughtwonationshavethesamePPSanddemands,tradecanalsohappen.Becausethereiseconomiesofscalethatcancometothecompletelyspecializationbetweenthetwonations.(两个完全一样的国家:
相同的生产和消费,同样会存在贸易,因为规模经济使得两个国家专业化生产两种不同的产品,但是,必须存在First-moveradvantage先发优势)
.Theoryofoverlappingdemands(重叠需求理论或林德理论)
Demandsideandinvolveinmanufacturegoods.
.Celebrity:
StaffanLinder
.Conclusion:
a.Themainforceinfluencingmanufactured-goodtradeisdomesticdemandconditions.
b.Theforeignmarketswithgreatestexportpotentialwillbefoundinnationswithconsumertastessimilartothoseofdomesticconsumers.
c.Lindercontendsthattastesofconsumersareconditionedstronglybytheirincomelevels.Percapitaincomewillyieldaparticularpatternoftastes.
Nationswithsimilarpercapitaincomeswillhaveoverlappingdemandstructuresandwilllikelyconsumesimilartypesofmanufacturedgoods.
完全以需求为导向,假定消费者的偏好在很大程度上受限于他们的收入水平,一国生产的商品的种类反映了该国的人均收入水平。
制成品的国际贸易在人均收入水平相似的国家要比在人均收入水平不同的国家间更为频繁。
该理论解释了战后发达国家之间频繁的贸易活动。
一个复杂的原因是,具有相似人均收入水平的国家,往往在地理位置上也是相近的。
因此,频繁的贸易反应的也可能是低的运输成本和文化的相似度。
.Intra-industrytrade
.Definition:
a.Inter-industrytrade:
Theexchangebetweennationsofproductsofdifferentindustries.
b.Intra-industrytrade:
two-waytradeinasimilarcommodity.
ii.Differencesbetweentheinter-industrytradeandtheintra-industrytrade
产业内贸易 产业间贸易
贸易商品来源国 同种或相近经济发展水平的工业国家 不同经济发展水平的工业国
适用的基础理论 现代贸易理论 新古典贸易理论
生产函数特点 规模报酬递增 规模报酬不变
消费者偏好 异质商品 同质商品
贸易利益来源 产品的差异性和规模报酬递增 生产要素比较优势的利用
.Types
A.Homogeneousgoods(同质产品)
a.Anationmayexportandimportthesameproductbecauseoftransportationcosts.
b.Homogeneousgoodsareseasonal.
B.Differentiatedproducts(异质产品)
a.LoveVarity:
Intra-industrytradeincreasestherangeofchoicesavailabletoconsumersineachcountry,aswellasthedegreeofcompetitionamongmanufacturersofthesameclassofproductineachcountry.
b.Economicscale:
Nationmayenjoyacostadvantageoveritsforeigncompetitorbyspecializinginafewvarietiesandstylesofaproduct.
.Productcycletheory(产品周期理论PCT)
唯一一个动态理论;要素密集度发生变化;动态比较优势
Inadynamicworld,technologicalchangesoccurindifferentnationsatdifferentratesofspeed.Thechangingfactorscanaffectcomparativeadvantagesandthepatternoftrade.
Thistheoryfocusesontheroleoftechnologicalinnovationasakeydeterminantoftradepatternsinmanufacturedproducts.
TypesofProductCycletheory:
i.Introductionstage:
technology-intensive(在研发国家生产,不存在国际贸易)localmarketsandsimilartastesandincomes.
ii.Maturestage:
capital-intensive(大批量生产,规模经济,向高收入国家出口)mass-production;Exportation
iii.Standardizedstage:
labor-intensive(生产向发展中国家转移)imitation模仿losecomparativeadvantages;decliningphase
Chapter5Tariff
I.Typesoftariff
i.Specifictariff(从量税):
Disadvantages:
Thedegreeofprotectionitaffordsdomesticproducersvariesinverselywithchangesinimportprices.(它的保护作用与进口品的价格反向变化)
Advantages:
Providingdomesticproducersmoreprotectionduringabusinessrecession.(萧条时期作用明显)
ii.Advaloremtariff(从价税)
Advantages:
a.Itcandistinguishamongsmalldifferentialsinproductqualitytotheextentthattheyarereflectedinproductprice.(区别异质产品)
b.Ittendstomaintainaconstantdegreeofprotectionfordomesticproducersduringperiodschangingprices.
Disadvantages:
a.Themainproblemhasbeentryingtodeterminethevalueofanimportedproduct,aprocessreferredtoascustomsvaluation.(海关估价)Importpricesareestimatedbycustomsappraisers,whomaydisagreeonproductvalue.
b.Importpricestendtofluctuateovertime,whichmakesthevaluationprocessratherdifficult.
iii.Compoundtariff(复合税)
Thiskindoftariffusuallyappliestomanufacturedproductsembodyingrawmaterialsthataresubjecttotariff.
Inthiscase,thespecificportionofthedutyneutralizes(抵消)thecostdisadvantageofdomesticmanufacturesthatresultsfromtariffprotectiongrantedtothedomesticsuppliersofrawmaterials,andtheadvaloremportionofthedutygrantsprotectiontothefinished-goodsindustry.
其他方式的分类:
Importtariffprotectivetariff
Exporttariffrevenuetariff
II.Effectiverateofprotection(有效保护率ERP)
被定义为当一国背离自由贸易、实施关税体系后,某一行业的产值增值变化的百分比。
目的:
Toprotectdomesticproducersfromforeigncompetition.
i.Nominaltariffrate:
Thatispublishedinacountry’stariffschedulewhichgivesgeneralideaofthelevelofprotection.However,itonlyappliestothetotalvalueofthefinalimportproduct.
ii.Effectivetariffrate:
Itsignifiesthetotalincreaseindomesticproductiveactivities(valueadded)thatanexistingtariffstructuremakespossible,comparedwithwhatwouldoccurunderfree-tradeconditions.
iii.计算:
ERP=
=
iv.Conclusion
Whenmaterialinputsorintermediateproductsenteracountryataverylowdutywhilethefinalimportedcommodityisprotectedbyahighduty,theresulttendstobeahighprotectionrateforthedomesticproducers.(工业制成品高关税,原材料低关税,ERP会高,对国内生产者有利)
Thehighervalueofnominaltariffrateonfinalproduct,thegreatertheeffective-protectionrateforanygivennominaltariffrateonthefinalproduct.
其目的是限制发展中国家国内制造业的发展,欲将发展中国家沦为初级产品的出口国。
III.Tariffescalation(关税升级)
i.Definition:
Thetariffstructuresofindustrializednationshavegenerallybeencharacterizedbyrisingratesthatgivegreaterprotestationtointermediateandfinishedproductsthantoprimarycommodities.(进口制成品的名义关税高于中间投入品和原材料的名义利率)
ii.这种情形与发达国家同发展中国家之间的贸易往来密切相关。
由于发达国家多是主机上升的关税结构,对制成品行业的进口保护重于对中间品和原材料行业的进口保护,发展中国家认为这是一种歧视性的规定,其目的是在于限制发展中国家国内制造业的发展,欲将发展中国家沦为初级产品的出口国。
IV.Tariffwelfareeffects
i.Consumersurplusandproducersurplus
a.价格上升时生产者剩余增加,消费者剩余减少。
b.价格下跌时,剩余从厂商转移到消费者身上。
总之,市场价格的变动将会导致剩余在消费者和生产者之间转移。
ii.Small-nationmodel
Forsmallnation,itcannotchangethepriceinworldmarkets;itjustistheprice-taker.
Thewelfareeffectsofatariffincludearevenueeffect,aredistributioneffect,aprotectiveeffectandaconsumptioneffect.
Revenueeffect:
c(政府)
Redistributioneffect:
a(厂商)
Protectiveeffect:
b本国较高的边际成本所带来的效率损失
Consumptioneffect:
d消费者放弃一定数量商品购买
Deadweightloss:
b+d它代表关税扭曲国内自由贸易的价格而产生的社会净成本
A.Revenueef
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