FAIRNESS AND FORMALITY MINIMIZING THE RISK OF PREJUDICE IN ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION.docx
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FAIRNESS AND FORMALITY MINIMIZING THE RISK OF PREJUDICE IN ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION.docx
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FAIRNESSANDFORMALITYMINIMIZINGTHERISKOFPREJUDICEINALTERNATIVEDISPUTERESOLUTION
1of1DOCUMENT
Copyright(c)1985UniversityofWisconsinLawSchool
WisconsinLawReview
November,1985/December,1985
1985Wis.L.Rev.1359
LENGTH:
24055words
ARTICLE:
FAIRNESSANDFORMALITY:
MINIMIZINGTHERISKOFPREJUDICEINALTERNATIVEDISPUTERESOLUTION.
NAME:
RICHARDDELGADO*andCHRISDUNN**andPAMELABROWN***andHELENALEE****andDAVIDHUBBERT****
BIO:
*ProfessorofLaw,UCLA.J.D.,1974,UniversityofCalifornia-Berkeley.
**Clerk,UnitedStatesCourtofAppeals,ThirdCircuit.J.D.,1985,UniversityofPennsylvania.
***J.D.,1986,UniversityofPennsylvania.
****J.D.,1985,UniversityofPennsylvania.
WegratefullyacknowledgetheencouragementandideasofStephenBurbank,andtheresearchofCharlesCarreon,ChrisMurphy,PattyShwartz,MaggieMadden,StephenLerner,andDianaPaseerbainthepreparationofthisarticle.TheworkwassupportedbygrantsfromtheUCLADean'sFundandUCLAAcademicSenate.
LEXISNEXISSUMMARY:
...Thus,whentheformalitiesoftraditionaladjudicationareabandonedinfavorofmoreinformalmethodsofdisputeresolution,minoritydisputantsmaybeplacedatanevengreaterdisadvantagethanthatwhichtheyusuallysuffer....Weapplythesefindingstotheformalism/informalismdichotomyandfindthatformaldisputeresolutionisbetteratdeterringprejudicethaninformaladjudication....Childrenacquiredattitudestowarddifferentgroupsbyobservingthebehaviorandattitudesofpersonsaroundthem,particularlyparents....Thus,factorsthatcauseindividualstoformprejudicedattitudesarefunctionallyrelatedtoanindividual'smembershipinagroup--"toadoptingthegroupanditsvalues(norms)asthemainanchorageinregulatingexperienceandbehavior."...Themannerinwhichthis"socialcontact"theorycanbeusedtopromotefairnessindisputeresolutionisdiscussedlater....DisputeResolutionandtheMinorityDisputantEarlyinlife,minoritychildrenbecomeawareofthemselvesasdifferent,especiallywithrespecttoskincolor....Itdoesthisbyattractingtoformalinstitutionsdisputesthatotherwisewouldhavebeensettledoutsidethesystemhadnotinformalmechanismsreducedtheworkloadofformalinstitutions,andbyattractingtoinformalforumsdisputesthatwouldhavebeensettledoutsidethesystemhadthoseinformalforumsnotbeenavailable....Fissalsowarnsoftheincreaseddangerthatdisputantsinsettlementproceedingsmaysufferconflictsofinterestwiththeirrepresentatives....If,forreasonsofeconomyorefficiencyADRmustberesortedtointhesesituations,thelikelihoodofbiascanbereducedbyprovidingrulesthatclearlyspecifythescopeoftheproceedingsandforbidirrelevantorintrusiveinquiries,byrequiringopenproceedings,andbyprovidingsomeformofhigherreview.
HIGHLIGHT:
LegalcommentatorshaverecentlybeguntofocusagreatdealofattentiononmethodsofAlternativeDisputeResolution(ADR),suchasarbitration,mediationandahostofotherinformalprocedures.Mostcommentatorshavearguedthattheseinformalalternativestothecourtroomwillleadtoamoreefficientandaccessiblejusticesystem.Thefewdetractors,primarilymembersoftheCriticalLegalStudiesmovement,havefocusedonthepoliticalshortcomingsofADR.InthisArticle,ProfessorRichardDelgadoandhisco-authorsexamineanotherpotentialliabilityofADR:
thepossibilitythatitmayfosterracialandethnicprejudice.Theauthorsrelyonseveralsocialscientificstudiesshowingthatpeoplewhoholdprejudicialattitudesaremorepronetoactonthoseattitudesininformal,ratherthanformal,settings.Thus,whentheformalitiesoftraditionaladjudicationareabandonedinfavorofmoreinformalmethodsofdisputeresolution,minoritydisputantsmaybeplacedatanevengreaterdisadvantagethanthatwhichtheyusuallysuffer.Ifcorrect,theconclusionsofthisArticleseriouslyunderminetheassertionbyADR'sproponentsthatADRisespeciallybeneficialtothepooranddisadvantaged,manyofwhomaremembersofvariousminoritygroups.Theauthorssuggestthat,toprotectminorities,ADRshouldbereservedfordisputesinwhichpartiesofcomparablestatusandpowerconfronteachother.Whenconfrontingopponentsofhigherstatusorpower,minoritieswouldbewelladvisedtooptforformaladjudicationandshouldnotbeforcedbythecourtsintoinformalproceedings.
TEXT:
[*1359]INTRODUCTION
AlternativeDisputeResolution(ADR)hasbeenheraldedasone[*1360]ofthemostvitalandfar-reachingproceduralreformsofourtime.n1Writershavepraisedthisloosecollectionofdeformalized,decentralizedprocedures,includingnegotiation,mediation,arbitration,neighborhoodjusticecenters,andconsumercomplaintpanelsn2--asofferingspeedy,non-intimidating,flexiblejusticeforthecommonperson,thelitigantofmodestmeansoronewhoseclaimissosmallthatitcannotbeprocessedeconomicallyincourt.n3AlternativeDisputeResolutionhasitsownacronym,ABASpecialCommittee,n4andspecializedjournals.n5Itsideasshapelawschoolcourses,clinicalteaching,andrecentlypublishedcasebooks.n6
Exceptforasmallgroupofleftistcritics,n7themovementhasfewdetractors.ThisArticleraisesaconcernthathasseeminglybeenoverlookedintherushtodeformalize--theconcernthatdeformalizationmayincreasetheriskofclass-basedprejudice.n8ADRhasbeenpromoted,[*1361]inlargepart,withtherhetoricofegalitarianism.n9Moreover,itisaimedatservingmanygroupswhosemembersareparticularlyvulnerabletoprejudice.n10Thus,ifourcriticismiscorrect--iftherhetoricisuntrueorifADRinjuressomeofthoseitisdesignedtohelp--societyshouldproceedcautiouslyinchannelingdisputestoalternativemechanisms.
PartIofthisArticlegivesabriefoverviewofADR.PartIIsurveysADR'scounterpart--formal,in-courtjustice--toseewhatmechanismsitincludesthatcheckandcontainprejudice.ADR,todate,hasfewprotections.Thislack,initself,wouldnotbeespeciallyworrisomeifthesettingsinwhichADRisconducteddiscouragedprejudice.PartIIIreviewssocialsciencewritingstoseehowtheybearonthisquestion.Itconcludesthat,basedonwhatisknownabouthumanandcontextualfactorsthatcontributetowardprejudicedbehavior,ADRisindeedlikelytoincreasetheriskofthatbehavior.PartIVsummarizesleftwingpoliticalcriticismsofADR.PartVreviewstheroleoftheidealofproceduralfairnessinoursystemofjusticetoseewhatsignificanceshouldbeattachedtoanincreasedriskofprejudice.ItthenbalancesthebenefitsandcostsofADRandsuggestswaysoflesseningthedangerofprejudicewithoutsacrificingtheadvantagesADRoffers.
I.ANOVERVIEWOFADR
RecoursetoformaljudicialinstitutionshasbeenincreasingrapidlyintheUnitedStates.n11Inthelastfortyyearsthenumberofannualfederaldistrictcourtcivilfilingshasjumpedfromapproximately35,000[*1362]to180,000;n12therewasa14.3%increaseinfilingsfromJune,1981toJune,1982alone.n13Attheappellatelevelfilingsrosefrom2,800in1950toover26,000in1981.n14Ifthatgrowthcontinues,federalappellatecourts,withmorethan5,000activejudges,willhearmorethanonemillionappealseachyearbythetwenty-firstcentury.n15
Asimilarpatternexistsinstatecourts.Forexample,from1967to1976stateappellatefilingsincreasedeighttimesasfastasthepopulation;trialcourtfilingsincreasedtwiceasfastasthepopulation.n16
Increasedresorttoformaldisputeresolutionmechanismsmightbetolerableifthosemechanismsresolveddisputeseffectively.Commentatorshavesaidthatsomedisputesarehandledmoreeffectivelyoutsidethecourts,without"thedelayandexpenseandpsychologicalstrain,thehostilityorlackofempathyengenderedbydifferencesofclass,orrace,orverbalstyle"n17thataccompanyformaladjudication.TheburgeoningADRmovementn18representsanattempttodevelopdisputeresolutionprocessesthatarefreeoftheseproblems.n19
AlthoughAmericanshavesoughtalternativestoformallegalinstitutionssincecolonialtimes,n20theearliestmajorpushforinformalforumscameintheearly1900'swhencriticismofthelegalsystem'sinefficiencyandexpenseintensified.n21Thiscriticismspawnedsmallclaims,juvenile,anddomesticcourtsaswellaspublicdefenderservicesandlegalaidsocieties.n22Butbythe1950's,critics,believingthattheearlierchangeswerenotprovidingequalaccesstojustice,wereagaindemanding[*1363]reform.n23Furthereffortsweremade,buttheytoofailedtoproducetheirintendedgoals.n24Thedissatisfactionattendingthisfailureledtothecurrentefforttoestablisheffectivealternativestoformaldisputeresolutionmechanisms.
"AlternativeDisputeResolution"encompassesmanymechanisms.Amongtheprincipalonesarearbitration,mediation,smallclaimscourts,communityjusticecenters,mediacomplaintboards,andinternalinstitutionalgrievancemechanisms.Inaddition,anumberofformal,in-courtadjudicationdevicesthatsharecertainfeaturesofADRaresometimesincludedunderthatrubric.Thesedevicesincludetheuseofmastersandmagistrates,settlementconferences,andoffersofjudgment.
Arbitrationisaprocessdisputantshaveusedforyearsinanefforttocircumventthecourtsystem'scostlydelaysn25andcongesteddockets.n26Inarbitration,disputantssubmittheirdisagreementtoanimpartialthirdpartyandagreetobeboundbythearbitrator'sdecision,adecisionthatacourtmayenforce.n27
Inmediation,aneutral,noncoercive,nonadversarialthirdpartycoordinatesandfacilitatesnegotiationsbe
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