dayin.docx
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dayin.docx
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dayin
TheFrenchRevolution(1789–1799)wasaperiodofradicalsocialandpoliticalupheavalinFrenchandEuropeanhistory.TheabsolutemonarchythathadruledFranceforcenturiescollapsedinthreeyears.Frenchsocietyunderwentanepictransformationasfeudal,aristocratic,andreligiousprivilegesevaporatedunderasustainedassaultfromliberalpoliticalgroupsandthemassesonthestreets.OldideasabouthierarchyandtraditionsuccumbedtonewEnlightenmentprinciplesofcitizenshipandinalienablerights.
ImmanuelKantsan18th-centuryGermanphilosopherfromthePrussiancityofKönigsberg.KantwasthelastinfluentialphilosopherofmodernEuropeintheclassicsequenceofthetheoryofknowledgeduringtheEnlightenmentbeginningwiththinkersJohnLocke,GeorgeBerkeley,andDavidHume.
Twothingsfillmewithconstantlyincreasingadmirationandawe,thelongerandmoreearnestlyIreflectonthem:
thestarryheavenswithoutandthemorallawwithin.
ZweiDingeerfuellendasGemuetmitimmerneuerundzunehmenderBewunderungundEhrfurcht,jeoefterundanhaltendersichdasNachdenkendamitbeschaeftigt:
derbestirnteHimmeluebermirunddasmoralischeGesetzinmir
Hegel'sthinkingcanbeunderstoodasaconstructivedevelopmentwithinthebroadtraditionthatincludesPlatoandKant.ThisfocusonfreedomiswhatgeneratesPlato'snotionofthesoulashavingahigherorfullerkindofrealitythaninanimateobjectspossess.WhileAristotlecriticizesPlato's"Forms",hepreservesPlato'spreoccupationwiththeontologicalimplicationsofself-determination,inhisconceptionsofethicalreasoning,thehierarchyofsoulinnature,theorderofthecosmos,andtheprimemover.Kant,likewise,preservesthispreoccupationofPlato'sinhisnotionsofmoralandnoumenalfreedom,andGod.
IHegelpreservesthisessentialPlatonicandKantianconcernintheformofinfinity'sgoingbeyondthefinite
Conformityistheprocessbywhichanindividual'sattitudes,beliefs,andbehaviorsareinfluencedbyotherpeople.Thisinfluenceoccursinbothsmallgroupsandsocietyasawhole,anditmaybetheresultofsubtleunconsciousinfluences,ordirectandovertsocialpressure.Forexample,peopletendtofollowthenormsofsocietywheneatingorwatchingtelevision,evenwhentheyareathomebythemselves.
Peopleoftenconformfromadesiretoachieveasenseofsecuritywithinagroup—typicallyagroupthatisofasimilarage,culture,religion,oreducationalstatus.Anyunwillingnesstoconformcarrieswithittheveryrealriskofsocialrejection.Inthisrespect,conformitycanbeseenasasafemeansofavoidingbullyingordeflectingcriticismfrompeers.Conformityisoftenassociatedwithadolescenceandyouthculture,butitaffectshumansofallages.
Althoughpeerpressuremaybeviewedasanegativetrait,conformitycanhaveeithergoodorbadeffectsdependingonthesituation.Drivingsafelyonthecorrectsideoftheroadisabeneficialexampleofconformity.Conformityinfluencestheformationandmaintenanceofsocialnormsandallowssocietytofunctionsmoothlyandpredictably.
Traditionsandstylingsofthemannerism
atismemorizedandpasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration,originallywithouttheneedforawritingsystem.Toolstoaidthisprocessincludepoeticdevicessuchasrhymeandalliteration.Thestoriesthuspreservedarealsoreferredtoasoraltradition.
Traditionsareoftenpresumedtobeancient,unalterable,anddeeplyimportant,thoughtheymaysometimesbemuchless"natural"thanispresumed.Sometraditionsweredeliberatelyinventedforonereasonoranother,oftentohighlightorenhancetheimportanceofacertaininstitution.Traditionsmayalsobechangedtosuittheneedsoftheday,andthechangescanbecomeacceptedasapartoftheancienttradition.]
Someexamplesinclude"theinventionoftradition"inAfricaandothercolonialholdingsbytheoccupyingforces.Requiringlegitimacy,thecolonialpowerwouldofteninventa"tradition"whichtheycouldusetolegitimizetheirownposition.Forexample,acertainsuccessiontoachiefdommightberecognizedbyacolonialpowerastraditionalinordertofavourtheirowncandidatesforthejob.Oftentheseinventionswerebasedinsomeformoftradition,butweregrosslyexaggerated,distorted,orbiasedtowardaparticularinterpretation.
Ascommonlyused,anindividualisapersonoranyspecificobjectinacollection.Individualityisthestateorqualityofbeinganindividual;apersonseparatefromotherpersonsandpossessinghisorherownneeds,goals,anddesires.
Descartes
InhisstatementCogitoergosum("IthinkthereforeIam"),ReneDescartespositsthenotiontheindividualsubject,distinctfromtheworldaroundhimorher.
[edit]Empiricism
EarlyempiricistssuchasIbnTufail[2]andJohnLockeintroducedtheideaoftheindividualasatabularasa("blankslate"),shapedfrombirthbyexperienceandeducation.Thistiesintotheideaofthelibertyandrightsoftheindividual,societyasasocialcontractbetweenrationalindividuals,andthebeginningsofindividualismasadoctrine.
HegelregardedhistoryasthegradualevolutionofMind(reason)asittestsitsownconceptsagainsttheexternalworld.(commonlyknownastheprocessofthesis,antithesis,andsynthesis).Theindividualcomestoriseabovehisorherownparticularandlimitedviewpoint,andtograspthatheorsheisapartofagreaterwholeinsofarasheorsheisboundtofamily,asocialcontext,apoliticalorder.
Withtheriseofexistentialism,KierkegaardInstead,heelevatedtheindividual'ssubjectivityandcapacitytochoosehisorherownfate.LaterExistentialistsbuiltuponthisnotion.Nietzsche,forexample,examinestheindividual'sneedtodefinehis/herownselfandcircumstancesinhisconceptofthewilltopowerandtheheroicidealoftheÜbermensch.TheindividualisalsocentraltoSartre'sphilosophy,whichemphasizesindividualauthenticity,responsibility,andfreewill.InbothSartreandNietzsche(andinNikolaiBerdyaev),theindividualiscalledupontocreatehisorherownvalues,ratherthanrelyonexternal,sociallyimposedcodesofmorality.
Creativityisamentalprocessinvolvingthediscoveryofnewideasorconcepts,ornewassociationsoftheexistingideasorconcepts,fueledbytheprocessofeitherconsciousorunconsciousinsight.
Fromascientificpointofview,theproductsofcreativethoughtareusuallyconsideredtohavebothoriginalityandappropriateness.
Althoughintuitivelyasimplephenomenon,itisinfactquitecomplex.Ithasbeenstudiedfromtheperspectivesofbehaviouralpsychology,socialpsychology,psychometrics,cognitivescience,artificialintelligence,philosophy,aesthetics,history,economics,designresearch,business,andmanagement,amongothers.eisnostandardizedmeasurementtechnique.
Creativityhasbeenattributedvariouslytodivineintervention,cognitiveprocesses,thesocialenvironment,personalitytraits,andchance("accident","serendipity").Somesayitisatraitwearebornwith;otherssayitcanbetaughtwiththeapplicationofsimpletechniques.CreativityhasalsobeenviewedasabeneficenceofamuseorMuses.
Althoughpopularlyassociatedwithartandliterature,itisalsoanessentialpartofinnovationandinventionandisimportantinprofessionssuchasbusiness,economics,architecture,industrialdesign,graphicdesign,advertising,mathematics,music,scienceandengineering,andteaching.
Despite,orperhapsbecauseof,theambiguityandmulti-dimensionalnatureofcreativity,entireindustrieshavebeenspawnedfromthepursuitofcreativeideasandthedevelopmentofcreativitytechniques.
LeonardodaVinciiswellknownforhiscreativeworks.
Somestudentsofcreativityhaveemphasizedanelementofchanceinthecreativeprocess.LinusPauling,askedatapubliclecturehowonecreatesscientifictheories,repliedthatonemustendeavortocomeupwithmanyideas—thendiscardtheuselessones.
Anotheradequatedefinitionofcreativity,accordingtoOttoRank,isthatitisan"assumptions-breakingprocess."Creativeideasareoftengeneratedwhenonediscardspreconceivedassumptionsandattemptsanewapproachormethodthatmightseemtoothersunthinkable.
Creativityindiversecultures
'isinvitingustolookatthatconceptfromaChineseculturalpointofview.
Creativityinartandliterature
Mostpeopleassociatecreativitywiththefieldsofartandliterature.Inthesefields,originalityisconsideredtobeasufficientconditionforcreativity,unlikeotherfieldswherebothoriginalityandappropriatenessarenecessary.[50]
Withinthedifferentmodesofartisticexpression,onecanpostulateacontinuumextendingfrom"interpretation"to"innovation".Establishedartisticmovementsandgenrespullpractitionerstothe"interpretation"endofthescale,whereasoriginalthinkersstrivetowardsthe"innovation"pole.Notethatweconventionallyexpectsome"creative"people(dancers,actors,orchestralmembers,etc.)toperform(interpret)whileallowingothers(writers,painters,composers,etc.)morefreedomtoexpressthenewandthedifferent.
Intheartpractice,humancreativityistakenasabasicfeatureofboththepersonalexistenceofhumanbeingandartproduction.Forthisthinker,creativityisabasicculturalandanthropologicalcategory,sinceitenableshumanmanifestationintheworldasa"realpresence"incontrasttotheprogressive"virtualisation"oftheworld.
Creativeindustriesandservices
Today,creativityformsthecoreactivityofagrowingsectionoftheglobaleconomy—theso-called"creativeindustries"—capitalisticallygenerating(generallynon-tangible)wealththroughthecreationandex
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