外文翻译红利和资本收益的税收策略和在双重税收标准下的分红决策节选Word下载.docx
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外文翻译红利和资本收益的税收策略和在双重税收标准下的分红决策节选Word下载.docx
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KariS,KarikallioH.Taxtreatmentofdividendsandcapitalgainsandthedividenddecisionunderdualincometax[J].InternationalTaxandPublicFinance,2007,14(4):
427-456.
外文文献翻译译文
一、外文原文
原文:
Taxtreatmentofdividendsandcapitalgainsandthedividenddecisionunderdualincometax
Seppo
Kari,Hanna
Karikallio
Thepaperanalysesefficiencyaspectsofadualincometaxsystemwithahighertaxoncapitalgainsthandividends.Itarguesthatapartfromthedistortionstoinvestmentsclaimedinearlierliterature,thesystemputsevenmoreemphasisincreatingincentivesforentrepreneurstoparticipateintaxplanning.Thepapersuggeststhattheownerofacloselyheldcompanycanavoidallpersonaltaxesonentrepreneurialincomebytwotax-planningstrategies.Thefirstistheavoidanceofdistributions,whichwouldbetaxedatthetaxrateonlabourincome.Thesefundswouldinsteadbeinvestedinthefinancialmarkets.Thesecondstrategyisadistributeandcall-backpolicy,convertingretainedprofitsintonewequitycapital.Interestingly,theoutcomeisthatinvestmentinrealcapitalisnotdistortedinthelong-runequilibrium.Empiricalevidenceusingmicrodataisalsoprovided.
Thetaxationofdividendshasattractedrenewedattentioninpubliceconomicsliteratureinrecentyears,partlybecauseoftheUS2003taxreformwhichintroducedconsiderablecutstothetaxratesondividendincome.Severalstudieshaveusedthereformasa“natural”experimenttobringnewunderstandingontheeffectsofdividendtaxationoncorporatebehaviour.Oneoftheissuesishowthechangeintherelativetaxburdenbetweendividendsandcapitalgainsaffecteddividendpay-outbehaviour(Poterba2004;
ChettyandSaez2005;
GordonandDietz2006).
Anothertopicalthemeinpubliceconomicsisincomeshiftingbetweendifferenttaxbases.WhiletheUSliteraturehasmainlyfocusedonshiftingbetweencorporateandindividualincometaxbases(GordonandSlemrod2000),theEuropeandebatealsopaysattentiontotheincentivesgeneratedbythetaxratedifferentialsbetweenindividuallabourandcapitalincome(Sø
rensen2005b).Onthebackgroundistherecenttrendtowardslownominaltaxratesoncapitalincome.
TheNordicdualincometaxation(DIT),whichcombinesprogressivetaxationoflabourincomewithproportionaltaxoncapitalincome,hasreceivedgrowingattentionintheinternationaldebate.1Astheliteratureexplains,thereareseveraltheoreticalandpracticalargumentsinfavourofDIT.However,sincethereisalargetax-rategapbetweentheproportionalratesoncapitalincomeandthetopmarginalratesleviedonlabourincome,thesystemislikelytoprovideincentivesfortax-minimisingbehaviour.Anotherproblem,whenimplementingDIT,ishowtodealwiththefactthatentrepreneurialincomeisaresultofacombinedcontributionofcapitalandlabourinputs.Totackletheseissues,theNordiccountrieshavesetuptaxrules,amongthemtheso-calledsplittingrules,forthetaxationofownersofcloselyheldcorporations(CHC)andunincorporatedfirms.Thesesplittingrulescalculatethecapitalincomepartasanimputedreturnonthefirm’sassetsandtreattheresidualaslabourincome.
Thequestionofwhetherthetaxrulesofincome-splittinghavebehaviouralimplicationshasattractedsomeattentionamongNordictaxeconomists.HagenandSø
rensen(1998)provideaverbalanalysisoftheproblemandKari(1999),Lindheetal.(2002,2004)andHietalaandKari(2006)reportontheeffectsoninvestmentdecisionsusingstandardcorporatetaxmodels.Kanniainen(2007)discussestheeffectsonentrepreneurship.Somestudieshavealsodealtwiththeissueofincome-shifting.Alstadsæ
ter(2003)examinestheeffectsofthepreviousNorwegianDITrulesontaxplanning,especiallythechoiceoftheorganizationalform.Fjæ
rliandLund(2001)provideempiricalevidenceonincome-shiftingbetweenlabourincomeandcapitalincomebases.
Thispaperanalysesthetaxationofcloselyheldcompanies(CHC)underthevariantofDITappliedinFinlandsince1993.Itcentresontax-planning,especiallyonhowdividendsandfinancialinvestmentsshouldbearrangedtomaximiseafter-taxincomeinthelongrun.Evidenceusingalargesetofmicrodataisalsoprovided.
TheFinnishDITcombinesabroad-basedflattaxoncapitalincomewithaprogressivetaxonlabourincome(Table1).Thetaxratedifferencebetweenthetopmarginaltaxrate(MTR)andtheproportionalcapitalincometaxratewascloseto26%in2004andevenlargerbeforethegradualMTRcutsimplementedinthelastdecade.Thereisreliefonowner-leveltaxationofdividendssothatinpracticeownersreceivenormaldividendstax-free.3Realisedcapitalgainsfromthesaleofsharesaretaxedatthenormaltaxrateoncapitalincome.DividendsreceivedfromaCHCaresplitintocapitalincomeandearnedincomebyconsideringanimputedreturnonthefirm’snetassetsascapitalincome(normaldividend)andcategorisingtheresidualasearnedincome(excessdividend).Thepresumptiverateusedtocalculatethecapitaincomeportionofdividendswas9.6%andthecapitalbasewasdefinedastheassetsinthefirm’staxaccounts.
TheNordiccountrieshaveadopteddifferingdefinitionsofthecapitalbase(HagenandSø
rensen1998;
Lindheetal.2002).UndertheNorwegiangrossmethod,thebaseismeasuredasthefirm’snon-financialgrossassets.4Sweden’sapproachistodefinethebaseastheacquisitioncostoftheshares.Finlandchoseathirdalternativeanddefinesthebaseasthefirm’snetbusinessassets.TheFinnishbasethusincludesalltypesofbusinessassets,includingfinancialassets,anddeductsliabilities.Asisshowninthispaper,thisdefinitionhasinterestingimplicationsforfirmbehaviourandalsofortheefficiencyofthetaxsystem.
Besidesthesplittingsystem,anotherunconventionalfeatureoftheFinnishtaxsystemisthatithascombinedsingletaxationofdividendswithnon-relievedtaxationofcapitalgains,thelatterimplyingdoubletaxationofretainedprofits.SwedenandNorwaytookadifferentapproachintheirDITreformsintheearly1990s:
bothcountriesaimedatneutrality.WhileNorway’sstrategywastoimplementsingletaxationofbothdistributedandretainedprofits,Swedenchosetheotherextreme:
doubletaxationofboth.
Taxliteraturesuggeststhattherelativetaxburdenondistributedandretainedprofitsmayinducehigherdividenddistributions(e.g.Poterba2004;
GordonandDietz2006).Furthermore,Sinn(1987)showsittoestablishincentivesforwhathecallsadistribute-and-call-backpolicy,whereprofitsareconvertedintonewequitycapitalbydistributingthemandthencollectingthembackthroughnewshareissues.ThispaperpresentsaformalanalysisofthefinancialbehaviourofaCHCundertheFinnishdualincometax.Itarguesthatthenon-neutralitiesofthetaxsystemencourageentrepreneurstoundertaketwospecifictax-planningstrategiesbywhichtheseagentsmayavoidpersonaltaxationentirely.Capitalgainstaxationisshowntobeimportantinunderstandingtheobserveddividendbehaviour.Inthetheoreticalpart,astandarddeterministiccorporatetaxmodelisused(Auerbach1979;
Sinn1987)augmentedherebyfinancialcapital.ThemodellingoftheFinnishdualincometaxcloselyfollowsKari(1999)andLindheetal.(2002).
Observethenon-standardfeaturesoftheentiredynamicsolutiontothefirm’sproblem.Dividendsarepaidduringthe(second)realinvestmentgrowthphase,andnotonlyinthesteadystate.Inthisrespect,theoutcomediffersfromSinn(1991),whoshowsthatunderalineardividendtaxprofitsareonlydistributedinthesteadystate.Wealsoobserveanunambiguousincentivetoinvestexcessprofitsinfinancialassets.Thefirmisnotindifferentinrespectoftheuseoffunds,butstrictlyprefersinvestmentinfinancialassets.Furthermore,nopersonaltaxesarepaidondistributedprofits.Thisisbecausetheimputationcrediteliminatestaxesonnormaldividendsandbecauseexcessdividends,subjecttoahightaxburden,areneverpaidout.
OurtheoreticalmodeladdsfinancialinvestmentstothestandardinvestmentmodelforCHCs.ThemodelpredictsthatundertheFinnishDIT,whichsplitsdividendsfromaCHCusingthefirm’snetassetsasthecapitalbase,theowneravoidstaxesonearnedincomeusingfirm-levelfinancialinvestmentsasthetax-planningvehicle.Thisisshowntoeliminatethetaxdistortiontorealinvestmentdecisionsreportedinearlierliterature.
Thefirm’sgrowthpathcontainsseveralnon-standardfeatures.Unlikeinthestandarddividend-taxmodelbySinn(1991),herethefirmpaysoutdividendsnotonlyinthesteady-statebutalsoduringitsgrowthpath.TheCHCsdividendpolicyisdeterminedbytherulethatthemaximumamountofnormaldividendsisdistributed.Thisoccursbothinthesecondrealinvestmentregimeandthefinancialinvestmentregime.Moreover,theCHCfacesanincentivetocollectnewequityatthesametimeasitpaysoutdividends(distribute-and-call-backpolicy).Thisincentiveisinducedbythehighertaxonretainedprofits(capitalgains)thandistributionsintheFinnishtaxsystem.
Theoppositeholdswhenconsideringfinancialholdings;
Theprobabilityofdistributingmaximumnormaldividendsincreaseswhenthecorporation’sfinancialholdingsincrease.Thisisevidentalsowhenweareconsideringonlydividend-payingcorporations.ThisfindinggivesstrongsupporttoourtheoreticalresultoftheinvestmentbehaviourinCHCs.Wearguedthatfirmshaveanincentivetoincreasenetassetsbyinvestinginfinancialassetsandsimultaneouslypaydividendthemaximumamounttaxableascapitalincome.Thesecon
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