英语语言学自编教材第三章Word文档格式.docx
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英语语言学自编教材第三章Word文档格式.docx
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II
III
A
xoda
[χ]asinGermanch.
moda
moda[z](cf.coda,codas)
B
Rudih
ngatus
=[ŋ]
Hurid
matus
hurid[z](hoard,hoards)
matus[iz](cf.mattress,mattresses)
C
bmick/bnick
blick
blick[s](cf.block,blocks)
AfluentEnglishspeakerwillimmediatelysaythatallthe“words”in
(1)arenotactualwordsofEnglish,yetmostEnglishspeakerswillagreethatthose“words”incolumnIarenotpossiblewords,whilethoseincolumnIIcanbe.Besides,mostEnglishspeakerswillalsoagreethatthepluralformsofthosewould–bewordsincolumnIIshouldbepronouncedasindicatedincolumnIII.HowdotheEnglishspeakers,especiallythosenativespeakers,knowthis?
Doesthisresultfromtheirmemorizingalistofwordsorfromsomethingelse?
Ifthisreallyresultsfrom“somethingelse”,whatisitthen?
2)
A:
*[æ
bs],
*[lkis],
*[ksɔ],
*[zti:
]
B:
[ɔks]
[ti:
z]
ThefluentspeakersofEnglishwillalsoimmediatelyidentifythosepronunciationsin2a)as“ungrammatical”or“illegal”,whicharemarkedwithastar“*”.However,theywillsaythatthepronunciationsin2b)aregrammatical.Furthermore,theywillrelatethosepronunciationsin2b)tosomethingelse:
Morphologically,theywillrelate[ɔks]tothespellingofox,andsemantically,theywillrelateittoaspecifickindofanimal,astheywillrelate[ti:
z]toteaseandanactionofmakingjokesaboutsomeoneinordertoembarrassthem.Whywilltheymakesuchkindsofjudgments?
Dotheydothesethingsaccidentallyandrandomly?
Aretheresomeunderlyingruleswhichmakethemdoso?
3)WhenwespeakEnglish,wemayfindacertainphoneme,say,/p/,maychangeitswayofpronunciationindifferentlinguisticenvironments.Forexample,/p/inpenisrealizedasanaspiratedsound[ph],while/p/inspadeisrealizedasanunaspiratedsound[p].Canyouthinkofotherexamplestoshowthatacertainphonememaychangeitswayofpronunciationindifferentlinguisticenvironments?
●SummariestoMakeandLinguisticViewpointstoLearn
Inquestion1)weknowthatanyfluentEnglishspeakerwillimmediatelymakeajudgmentwhichsoundisillegalandunacceptable,whichsoundisacceptablethoughitcannotberelatedtoanyconcretemeaningfulwordinEnglish,andwhichsoundisnotonlylegalbutcanberelatedtoaconcretemeaningfulwordinthatlanguage.Ofcourse,ourknowledgeofthesoundpatternsofournativelanguage(s)doesnotcomethroughmemorizingalistofwords,but,rather,throughinternalizedinformationabouttheallowedanddisallowedsoundpatternsofthatlanguage.FluentEnglishspeakersknowwhichsounds,orsegments,occurinthislanguageandwhichdon’t.Forexample,in1a),[χ]soundofGerman(writtenchasintheGermanpronunciationofBach)justdoesn’toccurinEnglish.Besides,weknowthattherearesomerestrictionsonthepositionofasoundwhereitoccurswithinaword.Forexample,asshownin1b),thesoundrepresentedbythespellingsequenceng[ŋ]canoccurinthemiddle(signer)orend(sing)ofaword,butnotthebeginning,andhoccursatthebeginning(hop)ormiddle(ahead),butnottheendofaword.Wealsoknowthatwhichsoundscanbecombinedintoasequence.Thusin1c),blisanallowablesequenceatthebeginningofaword(black),whilebmorbnisnot.Weknowhowtoaltertheformofasoundaccordingtotheenvironmentinwhichitoccurs.Forexample,intheregularformationofthepluralinEnglish,thepluralmarkerofanoun–sor–esispronounced[s],[z],or[iz],dependingoncertainpropertiesofthelastsoundofthisnoun.Nativespeakerswillautomaticallyproducemoda[z],hurid[z],matus[iz],andblick[s]in1)asexpected,eventhoughtheymaynotagreethatthesesoundsaremeaningful.Insomuchasthesethingsareconcerned,whichoccurrenceofsoundislegal,whattheirdistributionis,howtheycanbecombinedandhowtheymightberealizeddifferentlyindifferentpositionsinawordorphrase,allthesearetheconcernsofphonology.
In1)and2)wealsolearnthatnativespeakersofEnglishcannotonlyidentifywhichsoundsorsoundcombinationsarelegalandacceptable,theycanrelatethesesoundsorsoundcombinationstomeaningfulwordsaswell.Thisisnotachievedthroughmemorizingalistofwordseither,ofcourse.Thisisachievedbyacquiringcertainknowledgeofpronunciationandoftherelationbetweensound,orthography,andmeaning.Humanspeechorgansarecapableofproducinginfinitesounds,butonlypartsofthesesoundsandsoundcombinationsaremeaningfulintheenvironmentofsocialinteractions.Sotherulesandconstraintsthatdeterminewhichsoundsorsoundcombinationsaremeaningfulinalanguagearealsowhatphonologyisconcernedabout.
Soundsorsegmentsweproducearerepresentedortranscribedbysymbolssuchas[s],[æ
],and[ŋ].Thesesoundsareconventionallyputinbrackets,however,wecansometimescomeacrossthecasesthatthesoundsandsoundcombinationsareputbetweenslashes“//”.Thesearetwoconventionalwaysofsoundtranscription,whichinvolvesthedifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology.
Phoneticsandphonologyarebothconcernedwiththesamesubject–matteroraspectoflanguage–––speechsoundsastheaudibleresultofarticulation,buttheyareconcernedwiththemfromdifferentpointsofview.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade,transmitted,andreceived.Phonology,however,studiesthesoundsystemsoflanguages.
Phonologyisconcernedwithwhichsoundsalanguageusesandhowitarrangesthem.Itisconcernedwiththesoundsintheenvironmentofpersonaland/orsocialinteractions.Phonologyisthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofsoundsthatoccurinalanguage.Phonologicalstudyincludesthestudiesoftheuses,arrangements,andvariationsofspeechsounds;
thepossiblerelationshipbetweentwoneighboringsegmentsandtheunderlyingrulesandprinciplesthatdeterminesucharelationship;
suprasegmentalfeaturesincludingsyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.Italsoinvolvesstudyingalanguagetodetermineitsdistinctivesoundsandtofindoutwhichsoundsconveyadifferenceinmeaning.
Somesequencesofsoundsareacceptableinaword,whileothersarenot.Weknowthat*stapecouldbeanEnglishwordandthat*zdapecouldnot.Aphonologistneedstoknowwhywewouldacceptoneandnottheother,whyoneisinaccordwiththephonologicalsystemofEnglishandtheotherisnot.Heneedstoknowwhy,evenifwehaveneverseenawordbefore,wewouldagreethatthepluralmorphemeof*tovesisrealizedas/z/andwhythatof*stapeisrealizedas/s/.Whenaphonologistisconfrontedwithapairofwordsthatonlydifferinthatonewordbinbeginswith/b/andtheotherpinbeginswith/p/,hisconcernisthatthedifferenceissemanticallysignificant,thatthechoiceofinitialsegmentaltersthesense.Hewantstoknowwhetherthesesegmentscanstandinotherpositionsinawordandwhichsegmentstheycanstandnextto.Hewantstoknowwhetherasegmentisphoneticallyaffectedbyaneighboringsegment.
Phoneticsisgeneral(thatis,concernedwithspeechsoundsassuchwithoutreferencetotheirfunctioninaparticularlanguage),descriptive,andclassificatory;
phonologyisparticular(havingaparticularlanguageorlanguagesinview)andfunctional(concernedwiththeworkingorfunctioningofspeechsoundsinalanguageorlanguages).Wemightdescribephonologyasappliedorfunctionalphonetics.
Fromalltheaboveanalysesanddiscussions,wecanfigureouttheaimofthischapteristoprovideanintroductionintothemodernstudyofphonology,i.e.theareaoflinguisticsthatcoversthestudyofsoundsinaparticularlanguageandlanguagesingeneral,includingthestudyofsoundinventories,thebehaviorofsoundsincombinationwitheachother,andtherelationofphonologytophonetics.Besides,severaldifferenttheoriesonstudyingphonologywhichareveryinfluentialinthisfieldwillalsobeintroducedinthischapter.
●DefinitionstoClarify
Phonology:
Phonologystudieshowthesoundsystemofalanguagefunctionsandsoundsinthecontextoflanguagesandotherspeechvarieties.
2.BasicConceptsofPhonology
2.1Phone,PhonemeandAllophone
1)
Inouroralcommunication,meaningisrealizedintheformofspeechsounds.Whenwehearthewordspronouncedsuchaslet,fill,pat,spade,wecanidentifythatthefourwordscontainthefollowingspeechsounds:
[l],[e],[t],[f],[ɪ],[ɫ],[ph],[ɪ
Ifyousubstituteonesoundforanotherinaword,doallthesesoundshavethefunctionofdistinguishingmeanings?
2)Ifyousubstituteanaspirated[th]foranunaspirated[t]inthewordstudy,willthewordstudychangeitsmeaning?
Ifyousubstitutethesound/t/forthesound/d/intheworddip,willitsmeaningbeaffected?
Whenwecommunicateorally,allthespeechsoundsweproduceorheararephonessuchas[l],[e],[t],[f],[ɪ],[ɫ],[ph],[[s],[p],[eɪ],[d]inthewords:
let,fill,pat,spade.Theyarethesoundswhichpeopleactuallymakewhentheyspeak.Someofthephoneswehearandproducechangemeaningsasinthecaseofthesubstitutionofthephone/t/forthephone/d/intheworddip.Otherphonesdonotchangemeaningsasinthecaseofthesubstitutionofanaspirated[th]foranunaspirated[t]in
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- 英语 语言学 教材 第三
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