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(a)howthepartiestothecharterareidentified,incasesofdoubt;
(b)therightsandobligationsthatmayarisewhenacharterisconcluded—orpurportedlyconcluded—throughagents;
and(c)theexceptionalcasesinwhichpersonsotherthanthepartiesareboundbythecharter,oracquirerightsunderit.
Identifyingtheparties
2.3Normallythereisnodifficultyinidentifyingthepartiestothecharter.Butwherethereisuncertainty,theproperapproachtoresolvingitdependsonhowthecontractwasmade.
2.4Usually,chartersaremadeinwriting;
eithertheparties’agreementiscontainedinasignedcharterortheagreementismadeinanexchangeofemailsorfaxes.Insuchcases,theidentificationofthepartiesdependsupontheconstructionofthedocumentswhichconstitutethecontract:
seeShogunFinancev.Hudson[2004]1A.C.919,perLordPhillipsatpage972.Inotherwords,itdependsuponthemeaningofthosedocumentsasunderstoodbyareasonablereaderequippedwithknowledgeoftherelevantbackgroundthatthepartieshadorwouldreasonablybesupposedtohavehad.
2.5Inothercases,chartersaremadepartlyorallyandpartlyinwritingas,forexample,whereacharterisnegotiatedbothonthetelephoneandbyexchangeofemails.Insuchcases,theidentityofthepartieshastobeestablishedbyconsideringasawholethedocumentsandtheconversationswhichconstitutethecontract:
seeTheWinner[1986]1Lloyd’sRep.36,perEvans,J.,atpage44and,asanexample,TheSuwalki[1989]1Lloyd’sRep.511,perSteyn,J.,atpages512and513.
2.6Althoughtherearejudicialstatementswhichsuggestthattheidentityofapartytoacontractisaquestionoffact:
see,forexample,LordMillettinTheStarsin[2004]1A.C.715,atpage775,itissuggestedthatsuchstatementsshouldbetreatedwithcaution.
Theimportanceofthesignature
2.7Inseekingtoidentifytheparties,thecourtwilllookattherelevantdocument(ordocuments)asawhole.However,thewayinwhichanagreementhasbeensignedistreatedasbeingofspecialimportance.
TheElikonwasfixedonavoyagecharterwhichidentifiedtheownersas“SphinxNavigationLtd,Liberiac/oInternautShippingGmbH”.Thecharterwassigned,inaboxwiththeprintedheading“Signature/Owners”,byInternautShippingwithoutanyqualificationindicatingthattheysignedonlyasagents.ThequestionarosewhethertheownersunderthecharterwereSphinxNavigationorInternautShipping.TheCourtofAppealheldthatInternautShippinghadcontractedasowners,theformofthesignaturebeingofcriticalimportance.
InternautShippingv.Fercometal(TheElikon)[2003]2Lloyd’sRep.430(C.A.).
Lookingatthefactualbackground
2.8Wherethetermsofacharterareinsufficientbythemselvestoidentifytheparties,thecourtwilllookattherelevantfactualbackgroundtoresolvetheuncertainty.Forexample,whereacharterdoesnotnametheowners,butidentifiesthemmerelyas,say,“thedisponentowners”oftheship,thecourtwilllookatthefactualbackgroundtoidentifywhomthecharterwasintendedtobind.
AcharterofTheDoubleHappinesswasnegotiatedonbehalfof“owners”who,intheemailscontainingthecontract,werenotidentifiedotherthanasthedisponentownersoftheshipinquestionandasmembersofaparticulargroupofcompanies.Langley,J.,heldthatthecharterboundtheonlycompanythatfittedthatdescription.
TheDoubleHappiness[2007]2Lloyd’sRep.131.
2.9Similarly,wherethetermsofachartercontaincontradictoryindicationsastowhichoftwopersonsisintendedtobeboundbythecharter,thecourtwilllookatthefactualbackgroundtoresolvetheuncertainty.
Acontractwasexecutedbyapartyreferredtointhecontractas“DDTEngineeringLtd”.Twodifferentcompanieshad,atdifferenttimes,usedthatname(althoughonlyoneofthemwasproperlycalledDDTEngineeringLtdatthetimethecontractwasexecuted).Thetermsofthecontractcontainedcontradictoryindicationsastowhichofthetwohadexecutedit.Thecourtlookedatthebackgroundtothecontract,andinparticularitscommercialpurpose,todeterminewhichcompanywasbound:
seepage220,paragraph32.
DDTTrucksv.DDTHoldings[2007]2Lloyd’sRep.213.
(See,foranotherexampleoftheuseofbackgroundinformationtoresolvedoubt,TheElikon,above,[2003]2Lloyd’sRep.430(C.A.),perRix,L.J.,atpage441,paragraphs55and56.)
Misnomer
2.10Insomecases,whenacharterisconsideredagainsttherelevantfactualbackground,itbecomesclearthatapartyintendedtobeboundhasbeenreferredtobythewrongname.Insuchcases—calledcasesofmisnomer—thecourtwilllookbeyondthemistake,construingthecharterasiftherightnamehadbeenusedinthedocument.Thisisanapplicationofthewiderprinciplethatafalsedescriptiondoesnotvitiateacontract,ifthecontractasawholemakesclearwhatismeant.Correctingmisnomerisapartoftheprocessofconstruction;
itisnotanautonomousprincipleoflaw;
perLangley,J.,inTheDoubleHappiness[2007]2Lloyd’sRep.131,atpages136to137.
2.11Oftencasesofmisnomerinvolveacontractwhichnamesanon-existentpersonasapartyinplaceofthepersonintendedtobenamed:
seeGoldsmithv.Baxter[1970]Ch.85andTheTutova[2007]1Lloyd’sRep.104.Insuchcases,thereisabindingcontractwiththeintendedpartyprovidedthatareasonablereaderofthecontractwouldregardtheintendedpartyashavingbeensufficientlyidentifiedbyhischaracteristics.
2.12Thecourtcanalsocorrectamisnomerwhere,readingthecontractagainstitsfactualbackground,itisclearthatthecontractmistakenlynamesoneexistingperson,intendingtonameanother:
see,byanalogy,Nittanv.SolentSteelFabrications[1981]1Lloyd’sRep.633.
2.13However,thiscanonlybedonewherethetermsofthecontractasawhole,togetherwiththerelevantbackground,makeclearwhowasintendedtobenamed.Henceacourtisunlikelytofindthatamisnomerhasoccurredwherethecontractasawholecouldreasonablybeconstruedasintendedtobindthepersonsactuallynamedinthecontract:
seethecommentsofRix,L.J.,inDumfordTradingv.OAOAtlantrybflot[2005]1Lloyd'
sRep.289,paragraphs32to38.
2.14Insomecaseswhereanamingmistakecannotbecorrectedasamatterofconstruction,itmaystillbepossibletocorrectthemistakebyrectification.So,whereacharterismistakenlydrawnupinsuchawaythatitpurportstobindAandB,thecourtmaybeabletorectifythedocumentordocumentscontainingthecharterifitcanbeshownthattheagreementwasinfactintendedtobemadebetweenAandC:
see,forexample,TheRhodianRiver[1984]1Lloyd’sRep.373,perBingham,J.,atpage377.
Agreementsprovidingforthenominationorsubstitutionofparties
2.15Chartersaresometimesnegotiatedonthebasisthatonepartyis“tobenominated”bysomeotherperson.Insuchcasesitisdifficulttoseehowinprincipleacontractcanariseuntilthenominationismade.Yet,inTheWave[1981]1Lloyd’sRep.521,Mustill,J.,held,atpage528,thatacharterhadbeenvalidlyconcludedbyaparentcompany,Coastal,actingonbehalfofaCoastalsubsidiary“tobenominated”.
2.16Chartersalsosometimesprovidethatonepartymaybereplacedbyasubstituteparty.Insuchcases,ifandwhenasubstitutionismade,thecharterisnovatedwiththesubstituteparty.Questionsmaythenariseastowhetherthesubstitutepartyundertakestheexistingliabilitiesofthepersonhereplacesandalsoastowhetherthepersonreplacedremainsunderanyliability.Theanswertosuchquestionsdependsontheconstructionoftherelevanttermsofthecharter:
see,generally,Lorentzenv.WhiteShipping(1942)74Ll.L.Rep.161,perAtkinson,J.,atpage165,andChatsworthInvestmentsv.Cussins[1969]1W.L.R.1.
Contractsmadebyorthroughagents
2.17Chartersareveryoftennegotiatedandconcludedbyorthroughagentsactingonbehalfoftheparties.Forthisreason,inordertoestablishwhomaysueandbesueditisoftennecessarytoapplythegeneralrulesofthelawofagency.
2.18Theeffectofagencyisconsideredunderfiveheads:
(a)theagent’sauthoritytomakeornegotiateacharter;
(b)chartersmadebyagentsonbehalfofanacknowledgedordisclosedprincipal;
(c)chartersmadebyagentsonbehalfofanunacknowledgedorundisclosedprincipal;
(d)contractsmadebyagentsactinginexcessoftheirauthority;
and(e)contractsmadebypretendedagents.
Theauthorityoftheagent
Anagent’sactualauthority
2.19Anagent’sactualauthorityiswhatheisauthorisedtodobyhisprincipal.Actualauthorityisbasedonagreementorconsent:
“therelationshipofprincipalandagentcanonlybeestablishedbytheconsentoftheprincipalandtheagent…theconsentmusthavebeengivenbyeachofthem,eitherexpresslyorbyimplicationfromtheirwordsorconduct”:
seeGarnacv.HMFFaure[1968]A.C.1130,perLordPearsonatpage1137.
2.20Actualauthoritymaybeexpressorimplied.Inpractice,thecommonestkindofimpliedauthorityisauthorityarisingfromtheagent’spositionoremployment.Thisiscalledusualauthority.
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