language transfer from WikipediaWord文档下载推荐.docx
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crossmeaning)referstospeakersorwritersapplyingknowledgefromtheirnativelanguagetoasecondlanguage.Itismostcommonlydiscussedinthecontextof
Englishlanguagelearningandteaching,butitcanoccurinanysituationwhensomeonedoesnothaveanative-levelcommandofalanguage,aswhen
translating
intoasecondlanguage.
Contents
[hide]
∙1
Positiveandnegativetransfer
∙2
Proactiveinterferenceandnegativetransferinpsychology
∙3
Consciousandunconscioustransfer
∙4
Languagetransferincomprehension
∙5
Examples
∙6
Broadereffectsoflanguagetransfer
∙7
Seealso
∙8
Notes
∙9
References
[edit]Positiveandnegativetransfer
Blackboard
usedin
class
at
Harvard
showsstudents'
effortsatplacingthe
ü
and
acuteaccent
diacritics
Spanishorthography.
Whentherelevantunitorstructureofbothlanguagesisthesame,linguisticinterferencecanresultincorrectlanguageproductioncalled
positivetransfer
—"
correct"
meaninginlinewithmostnativespeakers'
notionsofacceptability.Anexampleistheuseof
cognates.Note,however,thatlanguageinterferenceismostoftendiscussedasasourceoferrorsknownas
negativetransfer.Negativetransferoccurswhenspeakersandwriterstransferitemsandstructuresthatarenotthesameinbothlanguages.Withinthetheoryof
contrastiveanalysis(thesystematicstudyofapairoflanguageswithaviewtoidentifyingtheirstructuraldifferencesandsimilarities),thegreaterthedifferencesbetweenthetwolanguages,themorenegativetransfercanbeexpected.
Theresultsofpositivetransfergolargelyunnoticed,andthusarelessoftendiscussed.Nonetheless,suchresultscanhavealargeeffect.Generallyspeaking,themoresimilarthetwolanguagesare,andthemorethelearnerisawareoftherelationbetweenthem,themorepositivetransferwilloccur.Forexample,an
Anglophonelearnerof
German
maycorrectlyguessanitemofGermanvocabularyfromitsEnglishcounterpart,but
wordorderand
collocation
aremorelikelytodiffer,aswill
connotations.Suchanapproachhasthedisadvantageofmakingthelearnermoresubjecttotheinfluenceof"
falsefriends"
.
[edit]Proactiveinterferenceandnegativetransferinpsychology
Duringthe1950’s,memoryresearchbeganinvestigatinginterferencetheory.Thisreferstotheideathatforgettingoccursbecausetherecallofcertainitemsinterfereswiththerecallofotheritems.Throughoutthe1950s,researchersprovidedsomeoftheearliestevidencethatthepriorexistenceofoldmemoriesmakesithardertorecallnewermemoriesandhedubbedthiseffect"
proactiveinterference."
[1][2][3][4]
Duringthesametime,researchersbeganinvestigatingnegativetransfer.[1][5]
Negativetransferconcernsitselfwithadetrimentaleffectofpriorexperienceonthelearningofanewtask,whereasproactiveinterferencerelatestoanegativeeffectofpriorinterferenceontherecallofasecondtask.[6]
Themostobviousandusedproactiveinterferenceandnegativetransferparadigmfromthe1950sand1960swastheuseofAB-AC,orAB-DElists.Participantswouldbeaskedtolearnalistofpairedassociatesinwhicheachpairconsistsofathreeletterconsonantvowelconsonant,nonsensesyllable(e.g.DYL),usedbecauseitwaseasytolearnandlackedpre-learnedcognitiveassociations,andacommonword(e.g.road).Inthisparadigmtwolistsofpairedassociationsarelearned.Thefirstlist,(commonlyknownastheABlist)wouldconsistofnonsensesyllablesasaprimer(whichconstitutedthe‘A’term),followedbyaword(whichconstitutedthe‘B’term).Thesecondlistwouldconsistofeitherthesamenonsensesyllableprimerandadifferentword(A-Clist)oradifferentnonsensesyllableprimerandadifferentword(D-Elist).TheAB-AClistwasusedbecauseitssecondsetofassociations(A-C)constitutesamodificationofthefirstsetofassociations(A-B),whereastheAB-DElistwereusedasacontrol.[4][7][8][9][10]
ShortlyafterwardsproactiveinterferencewasdemonstratedwiththeBrown-Petersonparadigm.[2]
AsingleBrown-Petersontrialconsistsofastudylist,aretentionintervalandthenarecallperiod.Eachlistmayconsistofahandfulofrelateditemsandarepresentedindividuallyeveryfewseconds.Forthedurationofashortretentioninterval,subjectsarethenaskedtoperformanengagingdistractortasksuchascountingbackwardsinsevens,orthinkingofananimalwitheveryletterinthealphabettominimizerehearsal.[4][2][10]
Subjectsarethenaskedtorecalltheitemsfromthissecondlist.Althoughthelistsfromprevioustrialsarenowirrelevant,thefactthattheywerestudiedatallmakesitdifficultforsubjectstorecallthemostrecentlist.
Negativetransferwasexaminedbyresearchersinthe60s[7][8][9][10]
andfounddifferentiallearningbetweentrials.Specifically,differencesinthelearningratesoflist2providedclearevidenceofthenegativetransferphenomenon.SubjectslearnedanA-Cpairedassociationlisttoacriterionofallassociationscorrect,followinglearningalistofA-Bpairedassociationstocriterion.Ultimately,itwasfoundthatthosesubjectstookanincreasedamountoftrialstocompletethelearningtaskcomparedtosubjectswhodidn’tlearntheA-BlistorfromsubjectswhohadtolearnaD-Elist.[10]
[edit]Consciousandunconscioustransfer
Transfermaybe
conscious
or
unconscious.Consciously,learnersorunskilledtranslatorsmaysometimesguesswhenproducingspeechortextinasecondlanguagebecausetheyhavenotlearnedorhaveforgottenitsproperusage.Unconsciously,theymaynotrealizethatthestructuresandinternalrulesofthelanguagesinquestionaredifferent.Suchuserscouldalsobeawareofboththestructuresandinternalrules,yetbeinsufficientlyskilledtoputthemintopractice,andconsequentlyoftenfallbackontheirfirstlanguage.
[edit]Languagetransferincomprehension
Transfercanalsooccurin
polyglot
individualswhencomprehendingverbalutterancesorwrittenlanguage.Forinstance,
English
bothhave
relativeclauses
witha
noun-noun-verb
(=NNV)orderbutwhichareinterpreteddifferentlyinbothlanguages:
Germanexample:
DasMä
dchen,dasdieFraukü
sst,istblond
WordbywordthisGermanrelativeclause
translates
to
Englishexample:
Thegirlthatthewomaniskissingisblonde.
TheGermanandtheEnglishexamplesdifferinthatinGermanthe
subject
rolecanbetakenby
dasMä
dchen
(thegirl)or
dieFrau
(thewoman)whileintheEnglishexampleonlythesecond
nounphrase
(thewoman)canbethesubject.Inshort:
TheGermanexampleis
syntactically
ambiguous
becauseitcanbe
thegirlor
thewoman
whodoesthekissing.IntheEnglishexampleitcanonlybe
whodoesthekissing.
TheambiguityoftheGermanNNVrelativeclausestructurebecomesobviousincaseswheretheassignmentof
object
roleisdisambiguated.Thiscanbebecauseof
casemarking
ifoneofthenounsis
grammaticallymale
asin
DerMann,dendieFraukü
sst…
(Themanthatthewomaniskissing…)vs.
DerMann,derdieFraukü
sst
(Themanthatiskissingthewoman)becauseinGermanthemale
definitearticle
marksthe
accusative
case.ThesyntacticambiguityoftheGermanexamplealsobecomesobviousinthecaseof
semantic
disambiguation.Forinstancein
DasEis,dasdieFrauisst…
DieFrau,diedasEisisst…
(both:
Thewomanthatiseatingtheicecream)only
dasEis
(icecream)isaplausibleobject.
BecauseinEnglishrelativeclauseswithanoun-noun-verbstructure(asintheexampleabove)thefirstnouncanonlybethe
object,
nativespeakers
ofEnglishwhospeakGermanasa
secondlanguage
aremorelikelytointerpretambiguousGermanNNVrelativeclausesasobjectrelativeclauses(=object-subject-verborder)thanGermannativespeakerswhopreferaninterpretationinwhichthefirstnounphraseisthesubject(subject-object-verborder).[11]
Thisisbecausetheyhavetransferredtheir
parsing
preferencefromtheirfirstlanguageEnglishtotheirsecondlanguageGerman.
[edit]Examples
Languagetransferproducesdistinctiveformsoflearner
English,dependingonthespeaker’sfirstlanguage.Someexamples,labeledwitha
blend
ofthenamesofthetwolanguagesinquestion,are:
▪Chinglish
(Chinese)
▪Czenglish
(Czech)
▪Denglisch
(German)
▪Dunglish
(Dutch)
▪Engrish
or"
Japlish"
(Japanese)
▪Finglish
(Finnish)
▪Franglais
(French)
▪Hinglish
(Hindi)
▪Konglish
(Korean)
▪Manglish
(Malaysian)
▪Poglish
(Polish)
▪Porglish
(Portuguese)
▪Runglish
(Russian)
▪Serblish
(Serbian)
▪Spanglish
(Spanish)
▪Swenglish
(Swedish)
▪Taglish
(Tagalog)
▪Tanglish
(Tamil)
▪Tinglish
(Thai)
▪Turklish
(Turkish)
▪Yinglish
(Yiddish)
Similarinterferenceeffects,ofcourse,alsoinvolvelanguagesotherthan
English,suchas
French,and
Spanish
(Frespañ
ol),
Portuguese,and
Spanish(Portuñ
ol)or
Catalan
(Catanyol).
Theseexamplescouldbemultipliedendlesslytoreflectthelinguisticinteractionsofspeakersofthethousandsofexistingorextinct
languages.
Suchinterfered-languagenamesareoftenalsousedinformallytodenoteinstancesof
code-switching,
code-mixing,orborrowing(using
loanwords).
[edit]Broadereffectsoflanguagetransfer
Withsustainedorintensecontactbetweennativeandnon-nativespeakers,theresultsoflanguagetransferinthenon-nativ
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