东西方文化比较复习资料Word格式.docx
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东西方文化比较复习资料Word格式.docx
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Ofcourse,itisnotlimitedtomen.
Womenpossessandcreateitaswell.
SinceTylor'
stime,theconceptofculturehasbecomethecentralfocusofanthropology.
UnderstandingCulture
Generallyspeaking,Cultureisthewayoflife,withoutitwecan’tsurviveinsociety.
Membersofaparticularculturehavecertainthingsincommon.
Culturecanbeseenassharedknowledge,whatpeopleneedtoknowinordertoactappropriatelyinagivenculture.
Individualism&
Collectivism
Identityamongcollectivistsisdefinedbyrelationshipsandgroupmemberships.Individualistsbaseidentityonwhattheyownandtheirexperiences.
Incollectivistculturesthecollectiveisresponsibleforthewrongdoingofoneofitsmembers;
inindividualistcultures,itissolelytheindividualwhoisresponsible.
Historyismoreimportanttocollectiviststhantoindividualists.Collectivistsseethemselvesaslinksinalongchainthatconsistsofancestorsanddescendants.Forindividualists,theindividualisinthecenterofthestage—whatcomesbeforeandafterismoreorlessirrelevant.
Individualismis:
asocialpatternthatconsistsoflooselylinkedindividualswhoviewthemselvesasindependentofcollectives;
areprimarilymotivatedbytheirownpreferences,needs,rights,andthecontactstheyhaveestablishedwithothers;
giveprioritytotheirpersonalgoalsoverthegoalsofothers;
emphasizerationalanalysesoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagestoassociatingwithothers.
Collectivismis:
asocialpatternconsistingofcloselylinkedindividualswhoseethemselvesaspartsofoneormorecollectives(family,co-workers,tribe,nation);
areprimarilymotivatedbythenormsof,anddutiesimposedby,thosecollectives;
arewillingtogiveprioritytothegoalsofthesecollectivesovertheirownpersonalgoals;
emphasizetheirconnectednesstomembersofthesecultures.
Gift-givingintheWest
“Ingeneral,westernersdonotusegiftstoincurorrepaysocialobligations.”
Whenarevaluablegiftsappropriate?
Valuablegiftsareanappropriatewaytoshowgratitudeonlyforatrulysignificantfavor,andonlyinsituationswhereitwillnotlooklikethegift-giveristryingtobuyfavor.
ShouldIopenitnow?
Oneinterpretationofthispracticeofnotopeninggiftsuponreceivingthemisthis:
thereceiverispreservingthefaceofthegiverbyavoidinganypossibilityofevaluatingthegiftinthepresenceofthegiverandothers.
“重义轻利”
“受人财不以为富”——《礼记》
李敖说:
“中国的规矩是礼物当面不打开,所以你送一盒砖头给人,人家也不知道。
”
Interpretation
Communicationisalwaysaninterpretiveprocess.Wheneverpeoplecommunicate,theymustinterpretthesymbolicbehaviorsofothersandassignsignificancetosomeofthosebehaviorsinordertocreateameaningfulaccountoftheother’sactions.Thisideasuggeststhateachpersoninacommunicationtransactionmaynotnecessarilyinterpretthemessageinexactlythesameway.Indeed,duringepisodesinvolvinginterculturalcommunicationthelikelihoodishighthatpeoplewillinterpretthemeaningofmessagesdifferently.
Interpretationisarapid,automaticprocess
Theinferenceswedrawinordinaryconversation(aswellasinreadingwrittentext)aredrawnveryquickly.Mostresearcherssuggestthatsuchinferencesmustbedrawneverytimeitbecomespossibleforspeakerstoexchangeturns,andthatsuchoccasionsoccurapproximatelyonceeverysecondinnormalconversation.
Mostofthetime,peopleoftenconflatetheprocessofperceivingandinterpreting.Whenwecommunicatewithothers,wetypicallyinterpretmessagesbyattachingmeaningdirectlytothem.Wedonotstoptodescribewhatwesaworheardbeforeweinterpretit.Rather,weinterpretmessagesasweperceivethem.
Perception
Selectiveexposure:
Q:
Didpeoplereadonlytheadsaboutthecartheyhadjustpurchasedordidtheyalsoreadadsforcarstheyhadconsideredinitiallybutdidnotbuy?
A:
Peopleexposethemselvestoinformationthatwouldreinforcetheirdecisiontobuyaparticularcar.
Selectiveattention:
Wecanallrememberhavingbeenveryhungryandfoundourselvesfocusingonthefoodwordsandpicturesinamovie,orbeenworriedaboutanexamandviewedeverythinginrelationtothesubjectareainwhichwewerebeingtested,oranxiousaboutafamilymember’shealthandnotedonlythemedicalshowsontelevision.
Selectiveretention:
Doyoustillrememberthenamesofanyofourelementaryschoolteachers?
Ifwedo,weprobablylikedthoseteachersandworkedwellintheirclassrooms.
PerceptioninInterculturalcommunication
Interculturalcommunicatornormallyisconfrontedwithpeoplewhodonotsharehisorherperceptionsoftheexternalworld,andwhomayrespondtothatworldinamannerthatisoftenhardtounderstand.
InEngland,apersonwithgoodmannersisperceivedassomeonewithnonaggressivebehaviorinaninterpersonalsetting—someonewhodoesnotspeaktostrangers.Inothercultures,suchastheArab,Italian,orJewish,aggressivebehaviorduringinteractionisnormalandisperceivedashighlydesirablewhileareservedattitudeisasignofbadmanners.
Generalization&
Stereotype
Whatistherelationshipbetweengeneralizationandstereotype?
Whyisstereotypedangerousinunderstandinganotherculture?
Stereotypeisaformofgeneralizationaboutsomegroupofpeople,orameansoforganizingimagesintofixedandsimplecategoriesthatareusedtostandfortheentirecollectionofpeople.
Stereotypeisawayofthinkingthatdoesnotacknowledgeinternaldifferencewithinagroup,anddoesnotacknowledgeexceptionstoitsgeneralrulesorprinciples.
WhyDoHumanBeingsStereotype?
Humanbeingshaveapsychologicalneedtocategorizeandclassify.
Itisimpossibleforhumanbeingstopersonallyexperienceeverything,andasameasureofefficiencytheydevelopsimplifiedperceptionsbasedonafewoutstandingcharacteristics.
WhyStereotypesproblematic?
1)Stereotypesgiveusafalsesenseofunderstandingofourcommunicationpartners.
2)Stereotypesresultinoverestimatesofthelinkbetweenthecategoryandtheattributesofthatcategory.Oncethestereotypeisinplace,itinfluenceshowweprocessinformation.Weselectinformationthatfitsthestereotypeandrejectinformationthatisinconsistentwithit.Asaresult,weprocessveryeasilyinformationthatispositiveaboutthein-groupandnegativeabouttheout-group.Wealsorememberinformationthatisconsistentwithourstereotypesbetterthanotherinformation.
3)Stereotypestendtodecreaseourinformationsearch.Thismakesourthinkinglessaccurateandourjudgmentsanddecisionspoor.
4)Stereotypesoftenleadtoself-fulfillingprophecies—peopleseeinforeignerswhattheyexpecttosee.
5)Stereotypesaboutout-groupsmostoftenarepredominantlynegative,andconsequentlyleadtoexpectationsthatarelikelytoorganizeourinteractionwithapreviouslyunknownmemberoftheout-groupinwaysthatpromotehostility,rejection,orconflict.Ournegativestereotypeswillleadustoexpectnegativebehaviorsfromthatstranger.
“MindfulStereotyping”
Thelinebetweenstereotypesandgeneralizationsisverythin.Giventhatatleastsomedegreeofstereotypingisprobablyinevitable,thequestionbecomeshowoneshouldstereotypewell.
“mindfulstereotyping”—Ting-Toomeythinksthattherearedifferencesbetween“mindlessstereotypingandmindfulstereotyping”.Thefirstbeingnegative,overexaggerated,ladenwithbiasandprovidingtypecasts,andthelaterconsistingofthoughtfulcomparisonsbetweenonesselfandothers,placedincontext,respectingsimilaritiesanddifferencewithanopenmindtonewinformation.
1)beingawarethatwearestereotyping;
2)Assumingstereotypesare“bestfirstguesses”,not“definiteanswers”;
3)Usingloose,interpretivecategoriesratherthanevaluativecategories;
4)Qualifyingourperceptionsandinterpretations;
5)Beingopentonewinformation,readytoredefinecategories;
6)Gettingtoknowtheidentitiesofindividualswithinthegroup;
7)Recognizing“meaningfulandvaliddifferences”betweenourgroupandtheirs.
Enculturation&
Acculturation
Enculturationisthesocializationprocessyougothroughtoadapttoyoursociety.Whenyougrowupinoneculture,youlearnonewayofclassifying,coding,prioritizing,andjustifyingreality.Alltheactivitiesoflearningone’sculturearecalledenculturation.
Acculturation,orculturaladaptation,referstoanindividual’slearningandadoptingthenormsandvaluesofthenewhostculture.Theindividualmustfindanewsourceoflivelihoodandbuildanewlife.Thisadaptingtothenewhostcultureiscalledacculturation.
a.
Assimilation:
isaprocessinwhichmembersofanethnicgroupareabsorbedintothedominantculture,losingtheircultureintheprocess.
b.
Integration:
isaprocessofdesiringahighlevelofinteractionwiththehostculturewhilemaintainingidentitywiththeirnativeculture.
c.
Separationandsegregation:
Separationiswhenindividualspreferlowlevelsofinteracti
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