语言学笔记Word文件下载.docx
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语言学笔记Word文件下载.docx
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1)Certainlinguisticsfactsarefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,sogeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.
2)Onthebasisofthesegeneralizationshypothesesareformulatedtoaccountforthefacts.Thesehypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations.
3)Atheoryisconstructedabouthowlanguageworks.
2.Whatisalinguist?
Whatisthemaintaskforhim?
Apersonwhostudieslinguistics.Hedoesnotneedtobeabletousealargenumberoflanguagesforcommunicationpurposes,butheshouldhaveawideexperienceofdifferenttypesoflanguages.Histaskisnottolearntouseanyparticularlanguage,buttostudyhoweachlanguageisconstructed,howitisusedbyitsspeakers,andhowitisrelatedtootherlanguages.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromonesocialclasstoanother,howitchangesfromonehistoricalperiodtothenext,andhowchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue.Tosumup,histaskisbasicallytostudyandunderstandthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichalllanguagesarebuilt.Tomakehisanalysisasscientificaspossible,heisusuallyguidedby4principles.
▲Consistency(一致性):
thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.
▲Economy(经济性):
otherthingsbeingequal,ashorterstatementoranalysisispreferredtoalongormoreinvolvedone.Thebeststatementsaretheshortestpossibleoneswhichcanaccountmostfullyforallfacts.
▲Objectivity(客观性):
alinguistshouldbeasobjectiveaspossibleinhisdescriptionandanalysisofdata,allowingnoprejudicetoinfluencehisgeneralization.
▲Exhaustiveness(穷尽性):
togatherallthematerialsrelevanttoone’sinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation.
3.Whatarethescopesoflinguistics?
▲Phonetics:
thestudyofhumanspeechsound
▲Phonology:
thesoundpattering
▲Morphology:
thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed
▲Syntax:
thearrangementofsentences
▲Semantics:
thestudyofmeaning
▲Pragmatics:
thestudyofhowspeakersusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication
▲Psycholinguistics:
therelationshipbetweenlanguage&
themind
▲Historiclinguistics:
thestudyoflanguagechange
▲Sociolinguistics:
society
▲Appliedlinguistics:
theapplicationoflinguistictheories&
principlestolanguageteaching(narrowsense)
▲Anthropologicallinguistics
▲Neurologicallinguistics
▲Mathematicallinguistics
▲Computationallinguistics
4.Whataresomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics?
(重要区别)
①Synchroniclinguistics(共时语言学):
thestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime(研究特定时间的语言体系)
Diachronic(historical)linguistics(历时语言学):
anapproachtolinguisticswhichstudieshowalanguagechangesoveraperiodtime(研究语言在一段时期内怎样变化)
Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.
e.g.ThesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglish
②Prescriptivevs.descriptive(规定性与描写性)
▲Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsactuallyare.
▲Do/Don’tsayX.(prescriptive)
▲Peopledo/don’tsayX.(descriptive)
Lookatthefollowingpairsofsentences:
▲ItisI.Itisme.
▲Whodidyouspeakto?
▲Whomdidyouspeakto?
▲Ihaven’tdoneanything.
▲Ihaven’tdonenothing.
▲③Speech&
writing
5.Whydomodernlinguisticsregardthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguage?
▲1)linguisticevolution;
(historically)
▲2)dailycommunication;
(function)
▲3)acquisitionofthemothertongue;
(genetically)
▲4)featuresofhumanspeech(authentic)
▲④Langue&
parole(语言与言语)
Whomadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?
Andwhen?
▲F.deSaussure(aSwisslinguist)intheearly20thcentury.
▲“ifwecouldembracethesumofword-imagesstoredinthemindsofallindividuals,wecouldidentifythesocialbondthatconstituteslanguage(langue).Itisastorehousefilledbythemembersofagivencommunitythroughtheiractiveuseofspeaking(parole),agrammaticalsystemthathasapotentialexistenceineachbrain,or,morespecifically,inthebrainsofagroupofindividuals.Forlanguageisnotcompleteinanyspeaker;
itexistsperfectlyonlywithinacollectivity.Inseparatinglanguage(langue)fromspeaking(parole)weareatthesametimeseparating
(1)whatissocialfromwhatisindividual;
and
(2)whatisessentialfromwhatisaccessoryandmoreorlessaccidental.
(------Saussure1959:
13-14)
▲“如果我们能了解所有个人头脑中的语言形象,我们就能知道形成语言的社会因素。
社会是一个储藏室,里面满是既定社团的各个成员,他们积极地使用语言这个语法系统,这个系统是存在于每个大脑中,或者,更具体地说,是在一群人的大脑中的潜力。
每个说话者的语言都是不完整的;
语言只有在集合中才是完整的。
把语言从言语中分离出来的同时也就区分了
(1)社会和个人;
和
(2)主要的和次要的或者说是偶然的。
”
▲(索绪尔:
《普通语言学教程》)
▲⑤Competence&
performance(语言能力与语言应用)
▲1)Whoproposedthedistinctionbetweenthem?
▲N.Chomsky(Americanlinguist);
AspectsofthetheoryofSyntax《句法理论的若干问题》
▲2)Whatiscompetence&
whatisperformance?
▲Competence:
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage(语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解)
▲Performance:
theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用)
WhatarethedifferencesbetweenSaussure’sandChomsky’sdistinction?
▲SaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflanguageisamatterofsocialconventionandChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.
▲ForthestudentsofEnglish,competenceneedstobenurturedintheprocessofenhancingperformance,butcompetencecallsformoreeffortsatthebeginningstagewhilesuccessinperformancemaymotivatetheacquisitionofcompetence.
Modernlinguistics&
traditionalgrammar
Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthem?
1.Linguisticsisdescriptivenotprescriptive.
2.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.
3.LinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguageintoaLatin-basedoruniversalframework.
Whatislanguage?
Sapir,1921(anAmericanlinguist):
“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”(强调function;
缺乏properties)
语言是人类独有的用任意创造出来的符号系统进行交流思想,感情和愿望的非本能的方法.
Chomsky,1957(anAmericanlinguist):
“FromnowonIwillconsideralanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences;
eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”(强调form;
缺乏function)
Definition:
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
Whatarethemainfeaturesoflanguage?
▲1)languagemustbeasystem.
▲2)languageisarbitrary.
▲3)symbolicnature:
wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconvention.
▲4)languageisvocalforspokenlanguagecamemuchearlierthanwrittenlanguage.
▲5)languageishuman-specific.
语言对人类至关重要,但很难具体阐述是什么使我们的语言优于动物的”语言”。
Birdsingsandbeedances它们也是在使用语言吗?
实际上不是。
罗素(BertrandRussell)曾经说过:
不管一只狗可以多么流利地bark,它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但诚实。
那么,是什么是它区别与其他物种所使用的“语言”?
----即人类语言性质的特征是什么?
Whatarethedefiningproperties(designfeatures识别特征)ofhumanlanguage?
Whoputforwardthem?
(Americanlinguist:
CharlesHockett)
1.Productivity(多产性):
theabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage,includingthesentencesthatwehaveneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothesituationinwhichtheyareuttered.
Whyislanguageproductive?
1)Duality(二重性).Becauseofdualitythespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.
2)Recursion(递归性).Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforitscreativity.Wecanwriteasentencelikethefollowingandgoonendlessly:
▲Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho…
2.Arbitrariness(任意性):
theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thereisnologicalrelationshipbetweenmeaningsandsounds.
由Saussure最先提出,已被人们广为接受。
语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。
▲Whatisthelinkbetweenalinguisticsign&
itsmeaning?
▲Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative.Thatis,itallowslanguagetochange.Onthecontrary,theothersideofarbitrariness---conventionality(约定性)makeslearningalanguagelaborious.Forlearnersofforeignlanguage,itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismoreworthnoticingthanitsarbitrariness.
任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力,而语言的约定性又使语言学习变得费力。
约定性比任意性更值得注意。
3.Duality(doublearticulation):
“Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,unitsofthelevelbeingcomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachlevelhavingitsownprinciplesoforganization.”(Lyons,1981:
20)
“二重性指拥有两层结构的这种特性,底层结构是上层结构的组成部分,每层都有自身的组合规律。
”(莱昂斯)
Duality(doublearticulation):
adistinctivecharacteristicoflanguagewhichreferstothefactthatlanguagesareorganizedintermsoftwolevels.Atonelevel,languageconsistsofsequencesofsegmentsorunitswhichdonotthemselvescarrymeaning(suchastheletter“g”,“d”and“o”).However
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