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relevantfactorsformodelsimplificationand
(2)prioritise
thefactorstoguidefurtherresearchandmeasurements.
CategoriesandSubjectDescriptors
D.2.9[SoftwareEngineering]:
Management;
D.2.8[Soft-
wareEngineering]:
Metrics;
D.2.5[SoftwareEngineer-
ing]:
TestingandDebugging
GeneralTerms
Economics,Verification,Reliability
Keywords
Softwarequalityeconomics,qualitycosts,cost/benefit,defectdetection
techniques,sensitivityanalysis
1.INTRODUCTION
Thequalityofasoftwaresystemcanbedescribedusing
differentattributessuchasreliability,maintainabilityetc.
Therearealsovariousapproachestoimprovethequalityof
softwarewithdifferingemphasisontheseattributes.Constructive
methodscompriseonegroupthattriestoimprove
theoveralldevelopmentprocessinordertopreventtheintroduction
offaults.However,theprevalentapproachisstill
touseanalyticalmethods,alsocalleddefect-detectiontech-
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ISSTA?
6,July17?
0,2006,Portland,Maine,USA.
Copyright2006ACM1595932631/
06/0007...$5.00.
niques,tofindandremovefaults.Themainrepresentatives
ofthisapproacharetestsandreviews.
Anoftencitedestimate[26]relates50%oftheoveralldevelopment
coststotesting.Jones[14]stillassigns30?
0%to
qualityassuranceanddefectremoval.Hence,defect-detection
techniquesareapromisingfieldforcostoptimisations.
However,tobeabletooptimisetheusageofdefect-detection
techniques,weneedasuitableeconomicalmodelfirst.There
aresomeapproachesthatmodelsoftwarequalitycostsbut
mostlyonahighlevelofabstraction.Theeffectsofindividual
faultsandtheeffectivenessofdifferentdefect-detection
techniquesregardingthesefaultsarenottakenintoaccount.
Alsoin[28]itisdiscussedthat揷ostisclearlyacentralfactor
inanyrealisticcomparisonbutitishardtomeasure,
dataarenoteasytoobtain,andlittlehasbeendonetodeal
withit.?
Raietal.identifyin[31]mathematicalmodels
oftheeconomicsofsoftwarequalityassuranceasanimportant
researcharea.揂betterunderstandingofthecostsand
benefitsofSQAandimprovementstoexistingquantitative
modelsshouldbeusefultodecision-makers.?
1.1Problem
Theunderlyingquestionishowwecanoptimallyusedefect-
detectiontechniquestoimprovethequalityofsoftware.
Inparticular,weinvestigateinthispaperhowtheeconomical
relationshipsofdefect-detectiontechniquesandquality
canbemodelledandtheimportanceofthefactorsinterms
oftheinfluenceontheoutputandespeciallyitsvariance.
1.2Contribution
Weproposeananalyticalmodeloftheeconomicsofdefect-
detectiontechniquesincorporatingdifferenttypesofdefect
costs,thedifficultyoffindingafaultofdifferenttechniques
andtheprobabilityoffailureforafault.Thisallows
anevaluationofdifferenttechniquesandgivesabetterunderstanding
oftherelationships.Theusedinputfactorsare
prioritisedtosimplifythemodelandtoidentifythefactors
thataremostbeneficialtobefurtherinvestigated.Furthermore,
amodelbasedondefecttypesisderivedtoallow
asimplerapplicationonrealworldprojects.Thismodel
couldbeusedtopredictoptimalusageofdefect-detection
techniquesinthefuturebasedonoldprojectdata.
1.3Outline
Westartbydescribingsoftwarequalitycostsingeneral
andourunderstandingofthevariouscostfactorsinSec.2.
Sec.3proposesananalyticalmodeloftheeconomicsofdefect-
detectiontechniquesthatcontainsthecostsassociated
73
witheachfault.Thismodelissubjecttoasensitivityanalysis
basedonthedatafromanolderstudyinSec.4.Forthe
practicalapplicationofthemodelasimplifiedversionbased
ondefectclassesisderivedinSec.5.Sec.6givesrelated
workandfinalconclusionscanbefoundinSec.7.
2.SOFTWAREQUALITYCOSTS
Qualitycostsarethecostsassociatedwithpreventing,
finding,andcorrectingdefectivework.Basedonexperience
fromthemanufacturingarea[15,5]similarqualitycostmodels
havebeendevelopedexplicitlyforsoftware[18,35,19].
Thesecostsaredividedintoconformanceandnonconfor-
mancecosts,alsocalledcontrolcostsandfailureofcontrol
costs.Theformercomprisesallcoststhatneedtobespent
tobuildthesoftwareinawaythatitconformstoitsquality
requirements.Thiscanbefurtherbrokendowntopreven-
tionandappraisalcosts.Preventioncostsareforexample
developertraining,toolcosts,orqualityaudits,i.e.costs
formeanstopreventtheinjectionoffaults.Theappraisal
costsarecausedbytheusageofvarioustypesoftestsand
reviews.
Thenonconformancecostscomeintoplaywhenthesoftware
doesnotconformtothequalityrequirements.These
costsaredividedintointernalfailurecostsandexternalfail-
urecosts.Theformercontainscostscausedbyfailuresthat
occurduringdevelopment,thelatterdescribescoststhat
resultfromfailuresattheclient.Agraphicaloverviewis
giveninFig.1.Becauseofthedistinctionbetweenprevention,
appraisal,andfailurecoststhisisoftencalledPAF
model.
costofquality
preventioncostsappraisalcostsexternalfailure
conformancenonconformance
internalfailure
setupexecutionfaultremovaleffect
Figure1:
Overviewoverthecostsrelatedtoquality
WeaddfurtherdetailtothePAFmodelbyintroducing
themaintypesofconcretecoststhatareimportantfor
defect-detectiontechniques.Notethattherearemoretypes
thatcouldbeincluded,forexample,maintenancecosts.
However,weconcentrateonamorereliability-orientedview.
Theappraisalcostsaredetailedtothesetupandexecution
costs.Theformerconstitutingallinitialcostsforbuying
testtools,configuringthetestenvironment,andsoon.The
lattermeansallthecoststhatareconnectedtoactualtest
executionsorreviewmeetings,mainlypersonnelcosts.
Onthenonconformanceside,wehavefaultremovalcosts
thatcanbeattributedtotheinternalfailurecostsaswell
astheexternalfailurecosts.Thisisbecauseifwefounda
faultandwanttoremoveit,itwouldalwaysresultincosts
nomatterwhethercausedinaninternalorexternalfailure.
Actually,theredoesnothavetobeafailureatall.
Consideringcodeinspections,faultsarefoundandremoved
thathavenevercausedafailureduringtesting.Itisalso
agoodexamplethattheremovalcostscanbequitedifferent
regardingdifferenttechniques.Whenatestidentifiesa
failure,thereneedstobeconsiderableeffortspenttofind
thecorrespondingfault.Duringaninspection,faultsare
founddirectly.Faultremovalcostsalsocontainthecosts
fornecessaryre-testingandre-inspections.
Externalfailuresalsocauseeffectcosts.Theseareall
furthercostswiththefailureapartfromtheremovalcosts.
Forexample,compensationcostscouldbepartoftheeffect
costs,ifthefailurecausedsomekindofdamageatthe
customersite.Wemightalsoincludefurthercostssuchas
lossofsalesbecauseofbadreputationintheeffectcostsbut
donotconsideritexplicitlybecauseitsoutofscopeofthis
paper.
3.ANALYTICALMODEL
Wedescribeageneral,analyticalmodelofdefect-detection
techniquesinthefollowing.Itisgeneralwithrespect
tothevarioustypesoftechniquesitisabletoanalyse.We
mainlyanalysedifferenttypesoftestingwhichessentially
detectfailuresandstaticanalysistechniquesthatreveal
faultsinthecodeorotherdocuments.Amodelthatincorporates
allimportantfactorsforthesedifferingtechniques
needstousetheuniversalunitofmoney,i.e.,unitssuchas
euroordollar.Wefirstdescribethemodelanditsassumptions
ingeneral,andthengiveequationsforeachcomponent
ofthemodelforasingletechniqueandforthecombination
ofseveraltechniques.
3.1General
Inthissection,weconcentrateonanidealmodelofquality
economicsinthesensethatwedonotconsiderthepractical
useofthemodelbutwanttomirrortheactualrelationships
asfaithfullyaspossible.
3.1.1Components
Wedividethemodelinthreemaincomponents:
?
DirectcostsdA
FuturecoststA
Revenues/savedcostsrA
Thedirectcostsarecharacterisedbycontainingonlycosts
thatcanbedirectlymeasuredduringtheexecutionofthe
technique.Thefuturecostsandrevenuesarebothconcerned
withthe(potential)costsinthefieldbutcanbedistinguished
becausethefuturecostscontainthecoststhatare
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