TEFL Methodology C6Word格式.docx
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TEFL Methodology C6Word格式.docx
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Thischaptermainlydiscusseslanguagelearning&
teachingfromthepointofviewoftheL2learnersasindividuals.Itistruethatdifferentlearnerswithpersonalweakness&
strengthsacquireL2differentlyintheway,effectandspeedoflearning.WhydoL2learners,whohaveseeminglyhadexperiencedsamelearningprocess(forinstance,toreceivethesameamount/typeofinputinthesameclassroom),acquirethelanguagedifferently?
WhatarethedifferencesinEFLlearnersandtheirlearningstrategiesthatmaybeusedinL2learning?
AndwhatmayEFLteachersdotohelpthedifferentEFLstudentslearnthelanguageintheclassroommoreefficiently?
1TheSuccessfulL2Learners&
TheirLearningStrategies
1-1What“goodlanguagelearners”oftendo
ItisbelievedthatlearnerswhoconsciouslyadoptlearnerstrategieshelpthemselvesinL2acquisition.Peoplecallthem“goodlanguagelearners”althoughpeople’sviewsaredifferentonwhatgoodlanguagelearnersalwaysdoduetodifferentlearningcontexts.AccordingtoRubin(1975),thegoodL2learnersoftendoasfollows:
●Theyrespondtothegroupdynamicatmosphereoftheclassroomsituationsoasnottoinhibitions&
anxiety(tofeelfree&
comfortableinclassroomatmosphere);
●TheyuseallopportunitiestousetheL2;
●TheymakeuseofopportunitiestopractiselisteningtoandrespondingtospeechintheL2thatisaddressedtothemortoothersfocusingonmeaningnotonform;
●TheysupplementlearningfromdirectcontactwithL2nativespeakers,byalsolearningfromformalstudyofform;
●Theyareadultoradolescentratherthanchildren,duringtheearlystageoflearninggrammar;
●Theyhaveenoughanalyticalskillstoperceive,categorizeandstoreL2linguisticfeaturesandusethemtomonitoroutput;
●Theyhavestrongreasontolearnthel2;
●Theyarereadytotakeriskswiththelanguage,evenifittakesthemseemfoolish;
●Theyareabletoadapttodifferentlearningconditions
1-2L2learnerstrategies
Whatarethelanguagelearnerstrategies?
Itisalsoaquestionwithdifferentanswers(SeeP.49formoredetails).Itiscommonlyacknowledgedthatlanguagelearnerstrategiesarethetechniquesordevicesthatthelanguagelearnersmightusetogainlinguisticknowledgeorskillsconsciouslyorsubconsciously,suchas:
prediction,inference,perceiving,borrowingetc.
TherearemanydifferentwaystocategorizeL2learnerstrategies,Rubin(1981)suggeststhree:
learningstrategies,communicationstrategies,andsocialstrategies.Andasforthelearningstrategies,therearesixtypes(P118-119).ButO’Malley(1985)statesanotherthree:
meta-cognitivestrategies,cognitivestrategiesandsocial-affectivestrategies.Generallyspeaking,thefollowingthreetypesoflearningstrategiesaremorelikelytobeacknowledged:
1)Cognitivestrategies:
actionsthatpermitlearning,e.g.,repetition,translation,andnotetakingetc.
2)Meta-cognitivestrategies:
actionsthatcontributetolearning,e.g.,correctingone’sownspeechforaccuracy&
appropriateness,self-rewardingetc.
3)Social-affectivestrategies:
actionsthatstimulatelearning,e.g.,learningorborrowingfromtheothers,self-encouraging&
motivatingetc.
Inaddition,whenthelearnersuseL2,theymayadoptsome“communicationstrategies”,suchas,circumlocution,repetition,avoidanceofunfamiliartopics,andtheuseofbodylanguageetc,whichareveryhelpfulwhentheirL2proficiencyislimited.
1-3ThelearningstrategiesofEFLlearnersinChina
Actuallythelanguagelearnersfromdifferenteducation/culturebackgroundsarelikelytousedifferentlearningstrategies,e.g.,asforEFLlearnersinChina,thestrategyof“rotememory”seemsverypopularbecauseofthetraditionoflearners’Chinese-learning(thetraditionofrecitingtheancientpoems),andaswellas“translation”strategy,itisalsocommonlyutilizedduetothelongTEFLhistoryofusingthe“grammar-translationmethod”.Sotheteachershouldmakegooduseofthoselearningstrategiesthatmostlearnersaregoodatandadoptednaturally,taking“vocabularylearning”asanexample,theteachershouldnotjustprovidetheopportunitiesforChineseEFLlearnerstousethe“rotememory”inreviewingorrecyclingthewordsbutalsoteachthemhowtousethemmoreeffectively.
SincetheuseoflearningstrategiesishelpfultodevelopEFLlearners’L2acquisition,teachersshouldalsohelpEFLlearnerstobeawareofthelearningstrategiestheyarenotfamiliarwith,e.g.,toprovidethemopportunitiestousethem,makethestrategiesbecomeanintegralpartoftheirwaysoflearninggradually.ThefollowingteachingstrategiescommonlyusedintheEFLclassroomsinChinesesettingsseemtobecommonlyadoptedtofacilitateEFLlearning.Forinstance:
presentationperceiving/noticing
analogycomparison/inducing
questionrecalling/remembering/(ordifferentkindsofthinking)
feedbackconfirming/revising/noticing/monitoring
substitutionrepetition/drilling
checkingnoticing/summarizing
taskshypothesis/application(allkindsofcognitiveactivities)
information-gapnegotiation/question
correctionmonitoring/revising
contextclueinference/guessing/translation
modelreference/borrowing
introductionprediction/translation
groupingcooperation/interaction
assessmentnoticing/monitoring/reflection/revision
2TheDifferencesAmongEFLLearnersinChina
2-1Thedifferencesinlearners&
whattheymeantoL2teaching
ActuallytherearealotofdifferencesinL2learners,notonlyintheirlearningstrategies,theirstaringageofL2learning;
thedifferentintelligence&
languageaptitude;
butalso,moreimportant,insomepersonalityfactorsofL2learning.
AccordingtoCPH(thecriticalperiodhypothesis),thestaringageforbeginnerstolearnL2shouldideallybebeforetheendofthecriticalperiod(10-12y.)asthebrainstillretainsitsearlyflexibilityatthattime.Howeveritdoesnotmeanthattheyoungerthelearnersare,thebettertheycanacquirethelanguage.Theyoungerlearnerscanspeakbetterthantheadultswithgoodpronunciationandgrammaticalaccuracy,that’strue,buttheolderadultlearnerscanbuildthesystematicandmorphologicaldevelopmentfasterthanchildrenfortheircognitiveandintellectualabilitiesarebetterdeveloped.
AsforL2learners’intelligence&
languageaptitude,itseemsthatpeople’sintelligenceplayslittleroleinlanguageacquisition,e.g.,L1acquisition,butitplaysanimportantpartinformalL2learninginclassroomforgeneralintelligenceisthoughttodeterminepeople’abilitytolearnanynewskills.Andsomepeoplebelievesthatthereisanotherinnateability,thatsomeofpeoplehavemorethanothers,whichmakesthemmorelikelytobesuccessfulinL2learning.Theabilityisknownas“LanguageAptitude”includingphoneticcodingability,grammaticalsensitivity,andinferentialabilityetc.
NomatterhowthefactorsdiscussedabovereallyaffectL2learners’acquisitionornot,theEFLteachershouldtakethemintoconsiderationsandpaymoreattentiontothelearners’personalityfactorsthatmayplaymorerolesinEFLlearning,especiallyintheclassroom.
2-2Differentpersonality&
cognitivestylesofEFLlearning
ThereislittleclearevidenceaboutthetypeofpersonalitythatismorelikelytomakeasuccessfulL2learner.Howeveritseemsthatinthelearningactivitiesthatemphasizetheuseoflanguagefluentlymore,theextrovertmaybemorelikelytobesuccessfulthantheintrovertwhoaretooinhibitedandcarefulinlearningbutmaymorelikelytobesuccessfulintheaccuracy-focusedlearningactivities.
AstheextroversiveEFLlearnersarealwaystalkativeandresponsivesothattheymaygetmoreopportunitiesforlanguagepracticeandoutputbuttheywouldnotliketocaretheformofthelanguage.Whiletheintroversivelearnersseemquietandmorecareful,theywouldpaymoreattentiontothestructureoflanguage,butdarenottakeriskswiththeunfamiliarlanguage.SotheEFLteachershouldbeveryclearaboutthestudents’personalityinaclassandmakegooduseofitbygroupingtogetherthosedifferentlearnersincludingboththeextroversive,flexibleandtheintroversive,careful,andhelpthemlearnhowtoworktogetherandlearnfromoneanotheringroupstousethetargetlanguageforthegoalofbothaccuracy&
fluency.
AnotherimportantpersonalityfactorinEFLlearningisthelearners’cognitivestyle.Cognitivestylereferstothewaythatlanguagelearnersorganize,analyzeandrecallnewinformation&
experiences.Somelearnersare“visualsensitive”,theyaregoodatacceptingvisualinformationbutsomeare“audiosensitive”,theyaregoodatreceiving&
rememberingaudioinformation,e.g.,someEFLlearnerscaneasilyrememberthenewwordsbyrecallingthewrittenformorthepositionofthetextwheretheysawthewordsfromreading,whilesomecanmoreeasilyrememberthembyrecallingthespeechsoundsfromlistening.
Andthedistinctionbetween“fielddependantlanguagelearners”and“fieldindependentlanguagelearners”shouldalsodrawtheattentiontoEFLteachersasittellsuswhysomeEFLlearnersaremorelikelytoacceptL2informationbytheteacherexactlywithouttheirownthinking,whilesomeothersaremorelikelytoanalyzeL2informationthattheyreceiveandthinkaboutitthemselvestodeterminewhetheritiscorrect.Thereforethefielddependantlanguagelearnersmaybemoreeasilytodevelop
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