General Introductionto AristotleWord格式.docx
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General Introductionto AristotleWord格式.docx
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UponthedeathofPhilip,Alexandersucceededtothekingshipandpreparedforhissubsequentconquests.Aristotle'
sworkbeingfinished,hereturnedtoAthens,whichhehadnotvisitedsincethedeathofPlato.HefoundthePlatonicschoolflourishingunderXenocrates,andPlatonismthedominantphilosophyofAthens.HethussetuphisownschoolataplacecalledtheLyceum.WhenteachingattheLyceum,Aristotlehadahabitofwalkingaboutashediscoursed.Itwasinconnectionwiththisthathisfollowersbecameknowninlateryearsastheperipatetics,meaning"
towalkabout."
Forthenextthirteenyearshedevotedhisenergiestohisteachingandcomposinghisphilosophicaltreatises.Heissaidtohavegiventwokindsoflectures:
themoredetaileddiscussionsinthemorningforaninnercircleofadvancedstudents,andthepopulardiscoursesintheeveningforthegeneralbodyofloversofknowledge.AtthesuddendeathofAlexanderin323BCE.,thepro-MacedoniangovernmentinAthenswasoverthrown,andageneralreactionoccurredagainstanythingMacedonian.Achargeofimpietywastrumpedupagainsthim.ToescapeprosecutionhefledtoChalcisinEuboeasothat(Aristotlesays)"
TheAtheniansmightnothaveanotheropportunityofsinningagainstphilosophyastheyhadalreadydoneinthepersonofSocrates."
InthefirstyearofhisresidenceatChalcishecomplainedofastomachillnessanddiedin322BCE.
2.Writings
ItisreportedthatAristotle'
swritingswereheldbyhisstudentTheophrastus,whohadsucceededAristotleinleadershipofthePeripateticSchool.Theophrastus'
slibrarypassedtohispupilNeleus.Toprotectthebooksfromtheft,Neleus'
sheirsconcealedtheminavault,wheretheyweredamagedsomewhatbydampness,mothsandworms.Inthishidingplacetheywerediscoveredabout100BCEbyApellicon,arichbooklover,andbroughttoAthens.TheywerelatertakentoRomeafterthecaptureofAthensbySullain86BCE.InRometheysoonattractedtheattentionofscholars,andtheneweditionofthemgavefreshimpetustothestudyofAristotleandofphilosophyingeneral.ThiscollectionisthebasisoftheworksofAristotlethatwehavetoday.Strangely,thelistofAristotle'
sworksgivenbyDiogenesLaertiusdoesnotcontainanyofthesetreatises.ItispossiblethatDiogenes'
lististhatofforgeriescompiledatatimewhentherealworkswerelosttosight.
TheworksofAristotlefallunderthreeheadings:
(1)dialoguesandotherworksofapopularcharacter;
(2)collectionsoffactsandmaterialfromscientifictreatment;
and(3)systematicworks.AmonghiswritingsofapopularnaturetheonlyonewhichwepossessofanyconsequenceistheinterestingtractOnthePolityoftheAthenians.Theworksonthesecondgroupinclude200titles,mostinfragments,collectedbyAristotle'
sschoolandusedasresearch.SomemayhavebeendoneatthetimeofAristotle'
ssuccessorTheophrastus.Includedinthisgroupareconstitutionsof158Greekstates.Thesystematictreatisesofthethirdgrouparemarkedbyaplainnessofstyle,withnoneofthegoldenflowoflanguagewhichtheancientspraisedinAristotle.Thismaybeduetothefactthattheseworkswerenot,inmostcases,publishedbyAristotlehimselforduringhislifetime,butwereeditedafterhisdeathfromunfinishedmanuscripts.UntilWernerJaeger(1912)itwasassumedthatAristotle'
swritingspresentedasystematicaccountofhisviews.Jaegerarguesforanearly,middleandlateperiod(geneticapproach),wheretheearlyperiodfollowsPlato'
stheoryofformsandsoul,themiddlerejectsPlato,andthelaterperiod(whichincludesmostofhistreatises)ismoreempiricallyoriented.Aristotle'
ssystematictreatisesmaybegroupedinseveraldivision:
Logic
Categories(10classificationsofterms)
OnInterpretation(propositions,truth,modality)
PriorAnalytics(syllogisticlogic)
PosteriorAnalytics(scientificmethodandsyllogism)
Topics(rulesforeffectiveargumentsanddebate)
OnSophisticalRefutations(informalfallacies)
Physicalworks
Physics(explainschange,motion,void,time)
OntheHeavens(structureofheaven,earth,elements)
OnGeneration(throughcombiningmaterialconstituents)
Meteorologics(originofcomets,weather,disasters)
Psychologicalworks
OntheSoul(explainsfaculties,senses,mind,imagination)
OnMemory,Reminiscence,Dreams,andProphesying
Worksonnaturalhistory
HistoryofAnimals(physical/mentalqualities,habits)
OnthepartsofAnimals
OntheMovementofAnimals
OntheProgressionofAnimals
OntheGenerationofAnimals
Minortreatises
Problems
Philosophicalworks
Metaphysics(substance,cause,form,potentiality)
NicomacheanEthics(soul,happiness,virtue,friendship)
EudemainEthics
MagnaMoralia
Politics(beststates,utopias,constitutions,revolutions)
Rhetoric(elementsofforensicandpoliticaldebate)
Poetics(tragedy,epicpoetry)
3.Logic
Aristotle'
swritingsonthegeneralsubjectoflogicweregroupedbythelaterPeripateticsunderthenameOrganon,orinstrument.Fromtheirperspective,logicandreasoningwasthechiefpreparatoryinstrumentofscientificinvestigation.Aristotlehimself,however,usestheterm"
logic"
asequivalenttoverbalreasoning.TheCategoriesofAristotleareclassificationsofindividualwords(asopposedtopropositions),andincludethefollowingten:
substance,quantity,quality,relation,place,time,situation,condition,action,passion.Theyseemtobearrangedaccordingtotheorderofthequestionswewouldaskingainingknowledgeofanobject.Forexample,weask,first,whatathingis,thenhowgreatitis,nextofwhatkinditis.Substanceisalwaysregardedasthemostimportantofthese.Substancesarefurtherdividedintofirstandsecond:
firstsubstancesareindividualobjects;
secondsubstancesarethespeciesinwhichfirstsubstancesorindividualsinhere.
Notionswhenisolateddonotinthemselvesexpresseithertruthorfalsehood:
itisonlywiththecombinationofideasinapropositionthattruthandfalsityarepossible.Theelementsofsuchapropositionarethenounsubstantiveandtheverb.Thecombinationofwordsgivesrisetorationalspeechandthought,conveysameaningbothinitspartsandasawhole.Suchthoughtmaytakemanyforms,butlogicconsidersonlydemonstrativeformswhichexpresstruthandfalsehood.Thetruthorfalsityofpropositionsisdeterminedbytheiragreementordisagreementwiththefactstheyrepresent.Thuspropositionsareeitheraffirmativeornegative,eachofwhichagainmaybeeitheruniversalorparticularorundesignated.Adefinition,forAristotleisastatementoftheessentialcharacterofasubject,andinvolvesboththegenusandthedifference.Togetatatruedefinitionwemustfindoutthosequalitieswithinthegenuswhichtakenseparatelyarewiderthanthesubjecttobedefined,buttakentogetherarepreciselyequaltoit.Forexample,"
prime"
"
odd"
and"
number"
areeachwiderthan"
triplet"
(i.e.,acollectionofanythreeitems,suchasthreerocks);
buttakentogethertheyarejustequaltoit.Thegenusdefinitionmustbeformedsothatnospeciesisleftout.Havingdeterminedthegenusandspecies,wemustnextfindthepointsofsimilarityinthespeciesseparatelyandthenconsiderthecommoncharacteristicsofdifferentspecies.Definitionsmaybeimperfectby
(1)beingobscure,
(2)bybeingtoowide,or(3)bynotstatingtheessentialandfundamentalattributes.Obscuritymayarisefromtheuseofequivocalexpressions,ofmetaphoricalphrases,orofeccentricwords.TheheartofAristotle'
slogicisthesyllogism,theclassicexampleofwhichisasfollows:
Allmenaremortal;
Socratesisaman;
therefore,Socratesismortal.Thesyllogisticformoflogicalargumentationdominatedlogicfor2,000years.
4.Metaphysics
seditorsgavethename"
Metaphysics"
tohiswo
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