Instructional designWord格式文档下载.docx
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Instructional designWord格式文档下载.docx
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History
MuchofthefoundationsofthefieldofinstructionaldesignwaslaidinWorldWarII,whentheU.S.militaryfacedtheneedtorapidlytrainlargenumbersofpeopletoperformcomplextechnicaltasks,fromfield-strippingacarbinetonavigatingacrosstheoceantobuildingabomber—see"
TrainingWithinIndustry(TWI)"
.DrawingontheresearchandtheoriesofB.F.Skinneronoperantconditioning,trainingprogramsfocusedonobservablebehaviors.Taskswerebrokendownintosubtasks,andeachsubtasktreatedasaseparatelearninggoal.Trainingwasdesignedtorewardcorrectperformanceandremediateincorrectperformance.Masterywasassumedtobepossibleforeverylearner,givenenoughrepetitionandfeedback.Afterthewar,thesuccessofthewartimetrainingmodelwasreplicatedinbusinessandindustrialtraining,andtoalesserextentintheprimaryandsecondaryclassroom.TheapproachisstillcommonintheU.S.military.[1]
In1956,acommitteeledbyBenjaminBloompublishedaninfluentialtaxonomyofwhathetermedthethreedomainsoflearning:
Cognitive(whatoneknowsorthinks),Psychomotor(whatonedoes,physically)andAffective(whatonefeels,orwhatattitudesonehas).Thesetaxonomiesstillinfluencethedesignofinstruction.[2]
Duringthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,learningtheoriesbegantobeinfluencedbythegrowthofdigitalcomputers.
Inthe1970s,manyinstructionaldesigntheoristsbegantoadoptaninformation-processing-basedapproachtothedesignofinstruction.DavidMerrillforinstancedevelopedComponentDisplayTheory(CDT),whichconcentratesonthemeansofpresentinginstructionalmaterials(presentationtechniques).[3]
Laterinthe1980sandthroughoutthe1990scognitiveloadtheorybegantofindempiricalsupportforavarietyofpresentationtechniques.[4]
Cognitiveloadtheoryandthedesignofinstruction
Cognitiveloadtheorydevelopedoutofseveralempiricalstudiesoflearners,astheyinteractedwithinstructionalmaterials.[5]Swellerandhisassociatesbegantomeasuretheeffectsofworkingmemoryload,andfoundthattheformatofinstructionalmaterialshasadirecteffectontheperformanceofthelearnersusingthosematerials.[6][7][8]
Whilethemediadebatesofthe1990sfocusedontheinfluencesofmediaonlearning,cognitiveloadeffectswerebeingdocumentedinseveraljournals.Ratherthanattemptingtosubstantiatetheuseofmedia,thesecognitiveloadlearningeffectsprovidedanempiricalbasisfortheuseofinstructionalstrategies.Mayeraskedtheinstructionaldesigncommunitytoreassessthemediadebate,torefocustheirattentiononwhatwasmostimportant:
learning.[9]
Bythemid-tolate-1990s,Swellerandhisassociateshaddiscoveredseverallearningeffectsrelatedtocognitiveloadandthedesignofinstruction(e.g.thesplitattentioneffect,redundancyeffect,andtheworked-exampleeffect).Later,otherresearcherslikeRichardMayerbegantoattributelearningeffectstocognitiveload.[9]MayerandhisassociatessoondevelopedaCognitiveTheoryofMultimediaLearning.[10][11][12]
Inthepastdecade,cognitiveloadtheoryhasbeguntobeinternationallyaccepted[13]andbeguntorevolutionizehowpractitionersofinstructionaldesignviewinstruction.Recently,humanperformanceexpertshaveeventakennoticeofcognitiveloadtheory,andhavebeguntopromotethistheorybaseasthescienceofinstruction,withinstructionaldesignersasthepractitionersofthisfield.[14]FinallyClark,NguyenandSweller[15]publishedatextbookdescribinghowInstructionalDesignerscanpromoteefficientlearningusingevidence-basedguidelinesofcognitiveloadtheory.
InstructionalDesignersusevariousinstructionalstrategiestoreducecognitiveload.Forexample,theythinkthattheonscreentextshouldnotbemorethan150wordsorthetextshouldbepresentedinsmallmeaningfulchunks.[citationneeded]Thedesignersalsouseauditoryandvisualmethodstocommunicateinformationtothelearner.
Learningdesign
Theconceptoflearningdesignarrivedintheliteratureoftechnologyforeducationinthelateninetiesandearly2000s[16]withtheideathat"
designersandinstructorsneedtochooseforthemselvesthebestmixtureofbehaviouristandconstructivistlearningexperiencesfortheironlinecourses"
[17].Buttheconceptoflearningdesignisprobablyasoldastheconceptofteaching.Learningdesignmightbedefinedas"
thedescriptionoftheteaching-learningprocessthattakesplaceinaunitoflearning(eg,acourse,alessonoranyotherdesignedlearningevent)"
[18].
AssummarizedbyBritain[19],learningdesignmaybeassociatedwith:
∙Theconceptoflearningdesign
∙TheimplementationoftheconceptmadebylearningdesignspecificationslikePALO,IMSLearningDesign[20],LDL,SLD2.0,etc...
∙ThetechnicalrealisationsaroundtheimplementationoftheconceptlikeTELOS,RELOADLD-Author,etc...
Instructionaldesignmodels
ADDIEprocess
PerhapsthemostcommonmodelusedforcreatinginstructionalmaterialsistheADDIEProcess.Thisacronymstandsforthe5phasescontainedinthemodel:
∙Analyze–analyzelearnercharacteristics,tasktobelearned,etc.
IdentifyInstructionalGoals,ConductInstructionalAnalysis,AnalyzeLearnersandContexts
∙Design–developlearningobjectives,chooseaninstructionalapproach
WritePerformanceObjectives,DevelopAssessmentInstruments,DevelopInstructionalStrategy
∙Develop–createinstructionalortrainingmaterials
Designandselectionofmaterialsappropriateforlearningactivity,DesignandConductFormativeEvaluation
∙Implement–deliverordistributetheinstructionalmaterials
∙Evaluate–makesurethematerialsachievedthedesiredgoals
DesignandConductSummativeEvaluation
MostofthecurrentinstructionaldesignmodelsarevariationsoftheADDIEprocess.[21]Dick,W.O,.Carey,L.,&
Carey,J.O.(2004)SystematicDesignofInstruction.Boston,MA:
Allyn&
Bacon.
Rapidprototyping
AsometimesutilizedadaptationtotheADDIEmodelisinapracticeknownasrapidprototyping.
Proponentssuggestthatthroughaniterativeprocesstheverificationofthedesigndocumentssavestimeandmoneybycatchingproblemswhiletheyarestilleasytofix.Thisapproachisnotnoveltothedesignofinstruction,butappearsinmanydesign-relateddomainsincludingsoftwaredesign,architecture,transportationplanning,productdevelopment,messagedesign,userexperiencedesign,etc.[21][22][23]Infact,someproponentsofdesignprototypingassertthatasophisticatedunderstandingofaproblemisincompletewithoutcreatingandevaluatingsometypeofprototype,regardlessoftheanalysisrigorthatmayhavebeenappliedupfront.[24]Inotherwords,up-frontanalysisisrarelysufficienttoallowonetoconfidentlyselectaninstructionalmodel.Forthisreasonmanytraditionalmethodsofinstructionaldesignarebeginningtobeseenasincomplete,naive,andevencounter-productive.[25]
However,someconsiderrapidprototypingtobeasomewhatsimplistictypeofmodel.Asthisargumentgoes,attheheartofInstructionalDesignistheanalysisphase.Afteryouthoroughlyconducttheanalysis—youcanthenchooseamodelbasedonyourfindings.Thatistheareawheremostpeoplegetsnagged—theysimplydonotdoathorough-enoughanalysis.(PartofArticleByChrisBressionLinkedIn)
DickandCarey
Anotherwell-knowninstructionaldesignmodelisTheDickandCareySystemsApproachModel.[26]Themodelwasoriginallypublishedin1978byWalterDickandLouCareyintheirbookentitledTheSystematicDesignofInstruction.
DickandCareymadeasignificantcontributiontotheinstructionaldesignfieldbychampioningasystemsviewofinstructionasopposedtoviewinginstructionasasumofisolatedparts.Themodeladdressesinstructionasanentiresystem,focusingontheinterrelationshipbetweencontext,content,learningandinstruction.AccordingtoDickandCarey,"
Componentssuchastheinstructor,learners,materials,instructionalactivities,deliverysystem,andlearningandperformanceenvironmentsinteractwitheachotherandworktogethertobringaboutthedesiredstudentlearningoutcomes"
.[26]ThecomponentsoftheSystemsApproachModel,alsoknownastheDickandCareyModel,areasfollows:
∙IdentifyInstructionalGoal(s):
goalstatementdescribesaskill,knowledgeorattitude(SKA)thatalearnerwillbeexpectedtoacquire
∙ConductInstructionalAnalysis:
Identifywhatalearnermustrecallandidentifywhatlearnermustbeabletodotoperformparticulartask
∙AnalyzeLearnersandContexts:
Generalcharacteristicofthetargetaudience,Characteristicdirectlyrelatedtotheskilltobetaught,AnalysisofPerfor
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