语习得研究与中国外语教学Word下载.docx
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语习得研究与中国外语教学Word下载.docx
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Krashen认为理想的输入应具备四个特征:
可理解性
趣味及关联性
非语法程序安排
足够的输入量
输入研究对教学的启示:
1、在课内外为学生创造接触大量可理解性输入的机会。
2、可理解性输入假设为大纲及课程设计、教材编写提供了理论上的指导;
3、可理解性输入只有在情感过滤假较低时才能见效,教师要创建宽松、友好、融洽的课堂学习气氛。
错误:
不符合语法规则和交际规则的话语,反映出的问题是学生语言知识和能力不足。
失误:
由说话和写作时精神不集中、疲劳、紧张、粗心、厌烦、激动或其他发面导致的错误,即通常所说的笔误、口误。
Corder(1972)明确区分了两类错误分析的意义:
一种是补救性错误分析,帮助教师评估学生的语言运用并帮助他们改正错误;
另一种是发展性错误分析,用于描述学习者的连续性过渡语言。
错误的分类:
Corder把错误分为语言能力错误和语言使用错误。
语言能力错误又分为语内错误和语际错误。
语内错误:
目标语语言规则自身特征造成的的错误。
语际错误:
母语的语言规则特征干扰造成的目标语使用错误。
语间干扰:
学生已掌握的语言体系(母语)对目前正在进行的语言(外语)学习的影响。
Hisbodyisveryhealthy.
Heisveryhealthy.
语内干扰:
学习者根据已获得的、有限的、不完整的外语知识和经验,对语言做出的不正确的假设,从而类推出偏离规则的结构。
过度概括是语内干扰的根源。
Thenovelisworthbeingread.
Thenovelisworthreading.
文化干扰:
Youhavegrownfatthesedays.
交际策略:
在一些场合,学生要用外语表达思想,但他现有的语言知识和技能又不能满足这一需求时,他就不得不求助于交际策略。
Ilostmyroad.(avoidance)
TheclassroomisveryLUAN.(languageswitch)
认知性格特点
教学引起的错误
错误分析的步骤:
收集学习者语言的样本--------鉴别错误--------描述错误-----------解释错误---------评估错误
纠错技巧:
直接纠正------间接纠正------自我纠正--------集体纠正
对比分析的方法:
描写
选择
对比
预测:
研究者把学习者的母语与目标语的异同分为不同的等级:
(Ellis:
1985,黄冰2004)
1.某个语言特征在两种语言中不存在差别。
2.同化现象(convergencephenomenon),即母语中的两个项目在目标语中合并为一个。
例如汉语的姑妈,舅妈,伯母等在英语里都表达为aunt
3.本族语中存在的项目,目标语中不存在,例如汉语的量词在英语中不存在。
4.母语和目标语都有同一项目,但是各自的分布不同。
例如:
/k//t//d/等音在汉语和英语里都能找到,但在汉语里这几个音只出现在音节开头,不出现在音节末尾;
而这几个音在英语中既可出现在音节开头也可出现在音节末尾,如/tub//kat//did/.
5.目标语中的项目和母语中的完全不同。
6.分化现象(divergencephenomenon),即母语里的一个项目对应目标语中的两个。
普遍语法理论的观点可以概括为:
1.这一理论强调第二语言如同其他自然语言一样,受到语言共同规律的制约和管辖;
2.普遍语言以及分类规律可以用来预测第二语言习得的顺序及过程
3.第二语言可以依据是属于语言共性还是语言个性(即某种语言中特有的结构)来预测习得的难易。
石化现象:
绝大部分学习者由于种种原因,外语学习到了一定程度之后,就不再像学习的最初状态那样稳步的提高,而是处在稳步不前的停滞状态,未能达到目标语这个理想的终点。
Selinker将石化现象定义为是指外语学习中的中介语中的一些语言项目、语法规则和系统性知识趋于固定下来的状态,年龄的增长和学习量的变化对改变这种固定状态不起作用。
临界期阶段:
在适宜的环境影响下,个体行为的习得特别容易,发展特别迅速。
Scovel认为,在临界期之前大脑有很强的可塑性,学习者能够顺利习得两种或多种语言,随着青春期的到来,这种可塑性慢慢消失。
由于大脑的成熟,语言功能的侧化(lateralization),成人在习得第二语言时很难获得母语般的熟练,特别是在语音方面,起始年龄较早的学习者可以获得较地道的口音。
Seliger(1978)提出复合临界期,他认为语言功能在左半脑的侧化和区域化是一个必须许多年发展的渐进过程。
在这一过程中,语言的不同方面的能力受不同阶段的年龄的影响。
即不同的语言技能有不同的临界期,这就解释了为什么成年人在语法的理解和掌握上表现的更出色。
中介语理论认为:
中介语是一种自然语言,它具有三种本质特征:
1.系统性:
从其初始状态开始,它就具有一种连贯的内部结构,因此可以对其进行系统的语言分析;
2.可渗透性:
它可以受第一语言和第二语言规则或形式的同时渗入或影响,并且受到其他一些有关因素的影响;
3.石化性:
发音方法、词汇用法和语法规则的某些方面都有可能固定下来或发生石化,其中发音石化是造成外国腔调的一个重要原因。
Accommodationtheory:
Accordingtothistheory,socialfactorsinfluencetheextenttowhichspeakersseektomaketheirspeechsimilarordissimilartospeechoftheirinterlocutors.
Avoidance:
Itissaidtooccurwhenspecifictargetlanguagefeaturesareunder-representedinlearnerproductionincomparisontonative-speakproduction.AvoidancemaybecausedbyL1transfer.
Backsliding:
Thisissaidtooccurwhenlearnersemployarulethatbelongstoanearlierstageofdevelopmentthanthelearner’scurrentstage.
Comprehensibleinput:
Thatpartofthetotalinputthatthelearnerunderstandsandwhichishypothesizedtobenecessaryforacquisitiontotakeplace.
Convergence:
Theprocessbywhichspeakersmaketheirspeechsimilartotheirinterlocutors’speech.L2acquisitioncanbeviewedas‘longtermconvergence’towardsnative-speakernorms.
Divergence:
Theprocessbywhichspeakersmaketheirspeechdifferentfromtheirinterlocutors’speech.FrequentdivergencecanbeconsideredtoimpedeL2acquisition.
Foreignertalk:
Thevarietyoflanguageusedbynativespeakerstoaddressnon-nativespeakers.
Form-functionmapping:
Theidentificationbythelearnerofaparticularfunctionwhichcanbeperformedbymeansofaparticularform.Theensuing“mapping”mayormaynotcorrespondtotargetlanguagenorms.
Fossilization:
Theprocessresponsibleforthecessationoflearningsomewayshortoftarget-languagecompetence.MostL2learners’interlanguagesfossilize.
Globeerrors:
Errorsthataffectoverallsentencestructure(eg,wordordererrors)
Instrumentalmotivation:
ThedegreeofeffortaleanerputsintolearninganL2asaresultofthedesiretoachievesomefunctionalgoal.(eg,topassanexam).
Integrativemotivation:
ThedegreeofeffortalearnerputsintolearninganL2throughaninterestinadesiretoidentifywiththetargetlanguageculture.
Resultativemotivation:
ThemotivationthatlearnersdevelopasaresultoftheirsuccessinlearninganL2.
Intrinsicmotivation:
ThedegreeofeffortalearnermakestolearnanL2asaresultoftheinterestgeneratedbyaparticularlearningactivity.
Interlanguage:
AtermcoinedbySelinkertorefertothesystematicknowledgeofanL2thatisindependentofboththetargetlanguageandthelearners’L1.
Investment:
Learners’commitmenttolearninganL2,whichisviewedasrelatedtothesocialidentitiesheyconstructforthemselvesaslearners.
Markedness:
Thisreferstothegeneralideathatsomelinguisticfeaturesmaybemore“basic”or“natural”thanothers.Moretechnicaldefinitionsbasedonlinguistictheoryalsoexist.
Mentalist:
Amentalisttheoryoflanguagelearningemphasizesthelearners’innatecapacityforacquiringalanguage.
UG:
Chomsky’stermfortheabstractprinciplesthatcompriseachild’sinnateknowledgeoflanguageandthatguideL1acquisition.
Scaffolding:
Theprocessbywhichlearnersutilizediscoursetohelpthemconstructstructuresthatlieoutsidetheircompetence.
Silentperiod:
SomeL2learners,especiallychildrenundergoalengthyperiodduringwhichtheydonottrytospeak,althoughtheymayengagein“privatespeech”.
Situationalcontext:
Theactualsituationinwhichcommunicationtakesplace.Situationalfactorssuchaswhoalearneristalkingtoinfluencethechoiceoflinguisticforms.
Thefrequencyhypothesis:
ItholdsthatinputandinteractionmayfacilitateL2developmentbymodelingspecificgrammaticalpatternswithahighfrequency.Inotherwords,thehigherthefrequencyisatwhichlearnersexperiencestheuseofL2grammaticalpatterns,thesoonertheyacquirethosepatterns.Infrequentlyheardwordsmaynotnecessarilybehardtolearn.
Averticalconstructionisalearnerutterancethatisconstructedbyborrowingchunksofspeechfromtheprecedingcourse,usuallyanutterancebyanNSoramorecompetentNNS.
Verticalconstructionsprovideevidenceforwhatpeopleknownasthecollaborativediscoursehypothesis,whichholdsthatlearnersmakeprogresswhentheirinterlocutorsprovide“scaffolding”.
Zoneofproximaldevelopment:
(Vygotsky’s)Amorecompetentpersonhelpsthechildreachahigherlevelwithinhisorherreach.
Accessibility:
Animplicationalorderingofrelativepronounfunctions(eg,subject,directobject)intermsoftheirdegreeofmarkedness.
Accuracyorder:
Therankingofgrammaticalmorphemesaccordingtotheaccuracywithwhicheachmorphemesisproducedinlearnerlanguage.
TutoredSLA:
Onegoestoaclasstolearnthesecondlanguage;
inclass,youhavetopayconsciousattentiontogrammarrulesandvocabularyitemsandhavetomakeanefforttocommitthemtomemory.
Attrition:
Ifonedoesnotcontinuelearning,hisL2willgetrustyandfinallybeforgotten,suchlossofalanguageiscalledattrition.
Declarativeknowledge:
knowwhat.
Proceduralknowledge:
knowhow
TheinterferenceofL1:
Pronunciation:
theclearestsupportforthepopularbeliefthatL1interfereswithSLAcomesfromthelearner’s“foreign”accentsintheL2performance.
TheChineseaccentismostclearlydemonstratedintheintonationofthestudents’Englishspeech.Chineseisasyllable-timedlanguage,inwhichtheutteranceofeachsyllabletakesupmoreorlessthesamelengthoftime,whileEnglishisastress-timedlanguage,inwhichtheutteranceofeachfoot.
Syntax:
Chineseisaleft-branchinglanguage(i.e.Nounsarepre-modified)whileEnglishistypicallyright-branching.(lingusticsschools,andtheacademicdramastudy,butmissthemoreidiomaticforms“schoolsoflingustics”“theacademicstudyofdrama”.
Habitisakeyconceptofbehaviorism,definedastheautomaticassociationofaparticularresponsewithaparticularstimulus.Theformationofahabitisachievedthroughimitationandreinforcement.
Thebehavioristunderstandingoflanguagelearningisresponsiblefortheextensiveuseoftheaudio-lingualmethodinL2teaching,themethodofrepeatedlisteninganddrillingofthesamesentences.
Contrastiveanalysishadastrongformandaweakform.ThestrongformheldthatwecouldusecontrastiveanalysistopredicateerrorsbyidentifyingthedifferencesbetweenL1andL2.Theweakformheldthatwecouldusecontrastiveanalysistodiagnose,i.e.Explainthereasonsfor,errorsbyidentifyingthemasaresultofinterference.
ThegenerallyendowedLADconsistsofonlyafewveryabstractprinciplesandparametersthatarepre-encodedinthebrain.
Theinnatehypothesis:
Earlyagedevelopment
Uniformacquisition.Languagedevelopmentisuniformforallchildren;
thatis,allchildrenlearnalanguageandreachanequallevelofcompetence.
Freedomofinstructionanderrorcorrection.Languageacquisition,however,doesnotrequireateacher.
LearnerstrategiesinSLAcanbedefinedasbehaviorsoractionslearnersusetomakelanguagelearningmoresuccessful,self-directedandenjoyable.
Productionstrategies:
ItconsistsofanattempttousetheL2efficientlyandeffectively.
Discourseplanning:
ifanideatakesmorethanonesentencetoexpress,thelearnerwillhavetoplanforseveralsentencesandputtheminasequencethatwillmaketheideacleartotheaudience.
Rehearsal:
alearnermaysaytohimselforherselfthewordsthathavebeenplannedbeforeheorsheactuallysaysthem.
Lingui
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