市场营销原理外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献学士学位论文文档格式.docx
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市场营销原理外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献学士学位论文文档格式.docx
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文献、资料来源:
著作
文献、资料发表(出版)日期:
2000.4
外文文献:
PrinciplesofMarketing
1.New-ProductPricingStrategies
Pricingstrategiesusuallychangeastheproductpassesthroughitslifecycle.Theintroductorystageisespeciallychallenging.Wecandistinguishbetweenpricingaproductthatimitatesexistingproductsandpricinganinnovativeproductthatispatentprotected.
Acompanythatplanstodevelopanimitativenewproductfacesaproduct-positioningproblem.Itmustdecidewheretopositiontheproductversuspositioningstrategies.First,thecompanymightdecidetouseapremiumpricingcompetingproductsintermsofqualityandprice.Figure17.1showsfourpossiblestrategy-producingahigh-qualityproductandchargingthehighestprice.Attheotherextreme,itmightdecideonaneconomypricingstrategy-producingalower-qualityproduct,butchargingalowprice.Thesestrategiescancoexistinthesamemarketaslongasthemarketconsistsofatleasttwogroupsofbuyers,thosewhoseekqualityandthosewhoseekprice.Thus,Tag-Heueroffersveryhigh-qualitysportswatchesathighprices,whereasCasiooffersdigitalwatchesatalmostthrowawayprices.
Companiesbringingoutaninnovative,patent-protectedproductfacethechallengeofsettingpricesforthefirsttime.Theycanchoosebetweentwostrat-egies:
market-shimmingpricingandmarket-penetrationpricing.
(1)Market-SkimmingPricing
Manycompaniesthatinventnewproductsinitiallysethighpricesto'
skim'
revenueslayerbylayerfromthemarket.Intelisaprimeuserofthisstrategy,calledmarket-skimmingpricing.WhenIntelfirstintroducesanewcomputerchip,itchargesthehighestpriceitcan,given,thebenefitsofthenewchipovercompetingchips.Itsetsapricethatmakesitjustworthwhileforsomesegmentsofthemarkettoadoptcomputerscontainingthechip.Asinitialsalesslowdownandascompetitorsthreatentointroducesimilarchips,Intellowersthepricetodrawinthenestprice-sensitivelayerofcustomers.
(2)Market-PenetrationPricing
Ratherthansettingahighinitialpricetoskimoffsmallbutprofitablemarketsegments,somecompaniesusemarket-penetrationpricing.Theysetalowinitialpriceinordertopenetratethemarketquicklyanddeeply-toattractalargenumberofbuyersquicklyandwinalargemarketshare.Thehighsalesvolumeresultsinfallingcosts,allowingthecompanytocutitspriceevenfurther.Forexample,DellandDanusedpenetrationpricingtosellhigh-qualitycomputerproductsthroughlower-costmail-orderchannels.TheirsalessoaredwhenIBM,Compaq,Appleandothercompetitorssellingthroughretailstorescouldnotmatchtheirprices.TheBankofScotlandandWinterthurofSwitzerlandusedtheirDirectLine,PrivilegeandChurchillsubsidiariestograbprofitsandshareinthemotorinsurancemarketbysellingdirecttoconsumersatmarket-penetratingprices.Thehighvolumeresultsinlowercoststhat,inturn,allowthediscounterstokeeppriceslow.
Severalconditionsfavoursettingalowprice.First,themarketmustbehighlypricesensitive,sothatalowpriceproducesmoremarketgrowth.Second,productionanddistributioncostsmustfallassalesvolumeincreases.Finally,thelowpricemusthelpkeepoutthecompetition-otherwisethepriceadvantagemayheonlytemporary.Forexample,DellfaceddifficulttimeswhenIBMandCompaqestablishedtheirowndirectdistributionchannels.
2.Product-MixPricingStrategies
Thestrategyforsettingaproduct'
spriceoftenhastohechangedwhentheproductispartofaproductmix.Inthiscase,thefirmlooksforasetofpricesthatmaximizestheprofitsonthetotalproductmix.Pricingisdifficultbecausethevariousproductshaverelateddemandandcosts,andfacedifferentdegreesofcompetition.
(1)ProductLinePricing
Companiesusuallydevelopproductlinesratherthansingleproducts.Forexample,Merloni'
ssellsIndesit,AristonandSeholtewithpriceand–statusascendinginthatorder.TherearcfullrangesofIndesittoAristonappliances,fromwashingmachinestofreezers,coveringthefirsttwopricehands,whileScholtesellsexpensivebuilt-inkitchenequipment.Kodakoffersnotjustonetypeoffilm,hutanassortmentincludingregularKodakfilm,higher-pricedKodakRoyalGoldfilmforspecialoccasions,andalower-priced,seasonalfilmcalledRuntimethatcompeteswithstorebrands.Eachofthesebrandsisavailableinavarietyofsizesandfilmspeeds.Inproductlinepricing,managementmustdecidionthepricestepstosetbetweenthevariousproductsinaline.
Thepricestepsshouldtakeintoaccountcostdifferencesbetweentheprod-uctsintheline,customerevaluationsoftheirdifferentfeaturesandcompetitors'
prices.Ifthepricedifferencebetweentwosuccessiveproductsissmall,buyerswillusuallybuythemoreadvancedproduct.Thiswillincreasecompanyprofitsifthecostdifferenceissmallerthanthepricedifference.Ifthepricedifferenceislarge,however,customerswillgenerallybuythelessadvancedproducts.
(2)Optional-ProductPricing
Manycompaniesuseoptional-produetpricing-offeringtoselloptionaloracces-soryproductsalongwiththeirmainproduct.Forexample,aearbuyermaychoosetoorderpowerwindows,cruisecontrolandaradiowithaCDplayer.Pricingtheseoptionsisastickyproblem.Carcompanieshavetodecidewhichitemstoincludeinthebasepriceandwhichtoofferasoptions.BMWsbasiccarscomefamouslyunderequipped.Typicallythe318iisaboutDM40,000,butthecustomerthenhastopayextraforaradio(pricesvary),electricwindows(DM700),sunroof(DM!
,800)andsecuritysystem(DM1,100).Thebasicmodelisstrippedofsomanycomfortsandconveniencesthatmostbuyersrejectit.Thepayforextrasorbuyabetter-equippedversion.Morerecently,however,AmericanandEuropeancarmakershavebeenforcedtofollowtheexampleoftheJapanesecarmakersandincludeinthebasicpricemanyusefulitemspreviouslysoldonlyasoptions.Theadvertisedpricenowoftenrepresentsawell-equippedcar.
(3)CapLive-ProductPricing
Companiesthatmakeproductsthatmustbeusedalongwithamainproductareusingcaptive-productpricing.Examplesofcaptiveproductsarerazors,camerafilmandcomputersoftware.Producersofthemainproducts(razors,camerasandcomputers)oftenpricethemlowandsethighmark-upsonthesupplies.ThusPolaroidpricesitscameraslowbecauseitmakesitsmoneyonthefilmitsells.AndGillettesellslow-pricedrazors,butmakesmoneyonthereplacementblades.Cameramakersthatdonotsellfilmhavetopricetheirmainproductshigherinordertomakethesameoverallprofit.
(4)By-ProductPricing
Inproducingproeessedmeats,petroleumproducts,chemicalsandotherproducts,thereareoftenby-products.Iftheby-productshavenovalueandifgettingridofthemiscostly,thiswillaffectthepricingofthemainproduct.Usingby-productpricing,themanufacturerwillseekamarketfortheseby-productsandshouldacceptanypricethatcoversmorethanthecostofstoringanddelivering;
them.Thispracticeallowsthesellertoreducethemainproduct'
spricetomakeItmorecompetitive.By-productscaneventurnouttobeprofitable.Forexample,manylumbermillshavebeguntosellbarkchipsandsawdustprofitablyasdecorativemulchforhomeandcommerciallandscaping.
Sometimescompaniesdon'
trealizehowvaluabletheirby-productsare.Forexample,mostZoosdon'
trealizethatoneoftheirby-products–theiroccupants'
manure-canbeanexcellentsourceofadditionalrevenue.ButtheZoo-DooCompostCompanyhashelpedmanyzoosunderstandthecostsandopportunitiesinvolvedwiththeseby-products.Zoo-Dolicensesitsnametozoosandreceivesroyaltiesonmanuresales.'
Manyzoosdon'
tevenknowhowmuchmanuretheyareproducingorthecostofdisposingofit,'
explainspresidentandfounderFierceLedbetter.Zoosareoftensopleasedwithanysavingstheycanfindondisposalthattheydon'
tthinktomoveintoactiveby-productsales.However,salesofthefragrantby-productcanbesubstantial.Sofarnoveltysaleshavebeenthelargest,withtinycontainersofZooDoo(andeven'
Love,LoveMeDoo'
valentines)availablein160zoostoresand700additionalretailoutlets.Forthelong-termmarket,Zoo-Doolookstoorganicgardenerswhobuy15to70poundsofmanureatatime.ZooDooisalreadyplanninga'
DungoftheMonth'
clubtoreachtheselucrativeby-productmarkets.
(5)Product-BundlePricing
Using,product-bundlepricing,sellersoftencombineseveraloftheirproductsandofferthebundleatareducedprice.Thustheatresandsportsteamssellseasonticketsatlessthanthecostofsingletickets;
hotelssellspeciallypricedpackagesthatincluderoom,mealsandentertainment;
computermakersineludeattractivesofwarepackageswiththeirpersonalcomputers.Pricebundlingcanpromotethesalesofproductsthatconsumersmightnototherwisebuy,butthecombinedpricemustbelowenoughtogetthemtobuythebundle."
Inothercases,product-bundlepricingisusedtosellmorethanthecustomerreallywants.Obtainingatickettoanexclusivesportseventisdifficult,butWorldCupfootballfinalsticketsareavailabletopeoplewillingtobuythembundledwithasupersonicConcordeflight.
3.Price-AdjustmentStrategies
Companiesusuallyadjusttheirbasicpricestoaccountforvariouscustomerdifferencesandchangingsituations.Sevenprice-adjustmentstrategics:
discountandallowancepricing,segmentedpricing,psychologicalpricing,promotionalpricing,-valuepricing,geographicalpricingandinternationalpricing.
(1)DiscountandAllowancePri
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