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学号070808206
院(系)经济与管理学院
专业市场营销
指导老师
二〇一〇年十二月九日
MarketingChannelsandValueNetworks
Mostproducersdonotselltheirgoodsdirectlytothefinalusers;
betweenthemstandsasetofintermediariesperformingavarietyoffunctions.Theseintermediariesconstituteamarketingchannel(alsocalledatradechannelordistributionchannel).Formally,marketingchannelsaresetsofinterdependentorganizationsinvolvedintheprocessofmakingaproductorserviceavailableforuseorconsumption.Theyarethesetofpathwaysaproductorservicefollowsafterproduction,culminatinginpurchaseandusebythefinalenduser.
Someintermediaries-suchaswholesalersandretailers-buy,taketitleto,andresellthemerchandise;
theyarecalledmerchants.Others-brokers,manufacturers'
representatives,salesagents-searchforcustomersandmaynegotiateontheproducer'
sbehalfbutdonottaketitletothegoods;
theyarecalledagents.Stillothers-transportationcompanies,independentwarehouses,banks,advertisingagencies-assistinthedistributionprocessbutneithertaketitletogoodsnornegotiatepurchasesorsales;
theyarecalledfacilitators.
TheImportanceofChannels
Amarketingchannelsystemistheparticularsetofmarketingchannelsafirmemploys,anddecisionsaboutitareamongthemostcriticalonesmanagementfaces.IntheUnitedStates,channelmemberscollectivelyhaveearnedmarginsthataccountfor30%to50%oftheultimatesellingprice.Incontrast,advertisingtypicallyhasaccountedforlessthan5%to7%ofthefinalprice.Marketingchannelsalsorepresentasubstantialopportunitycost.Oneofthechiefroles
ofmarketingchannelsistoconvertpotentialbuyersintoprofitablecustomers.Marketingchannelsmustnotjustservemarkets,theymustalsomakemarkets.
Thechannelschosenaffectallothermarketingdecisions.Thecompany'
spricingdependsonwhetheritusesmassmerchandisersorhigh-qualityboutiques.Thefirm'
ssaleforceandadvertisingdecisionsdependonhowmuchtrainingandmotivationdealersneed.Inaddition,channeldecisionsincluderelativelylong-termcommitmentswithotherfinnsaswellasasetofpoliciesandprocedures.Whenanautomakersignsupindependentdeal·
erstosellitsautomobiles,theautomakercannotbuythemoutthenextdayandreplacethemwithcompany-ownedoutlets.Butatthesametime,channelchoicesthemselvesdependonthecompany'
smarketingstrategywithrespecttosegmentation,targeting,andpositioning.Holisticmarketersensurethatmarketingdecisionsinallthesedifferentareasaremadetocollectivelymaximizevalue.
Inmanagingitsintermediaries,thefirmmustdecidehowmuchefforttodevotetopushversuspullmarketing.Apushstrategyusesthemanufacturer'
ssalesforce,tradepromotionmoney,orothermeanstoinduceintermediariestocarry,promote,andselltheproducttoendusers.Pushstrategyisappropriatewherethereislowbrandloyaltyinacategory,brandchoiceismadeinthestore,theproductisanimpulseitem,andproductbenefitsarewellunderstood.Inapullstrategythemanufacturerusesadvertising,promotion,andotherformsofcommunicationtopersuadeconsumerstodemandtheproductfromintermediaries,thusinducingtheintermediariestoorderit.Pullstrategyisappropriatewhenthereishighbrandloyaltyandhighinvolvementinthecategory,whenconsumersareabletoper·
ceivedifferencesbetweenbrands,andwhentheychoosethebrandbeforetheygotothestore.Foryears,drugcompaniesaimedadssolelyatdoctorsandhospitals,butin1997theFDAissuedguidelinesforTVadsthatopenedthewayforpharmaceuticalstoreachconsumers
directly.Thisisparticularlyevidentintheburgeoningbusinessofprescriptionsleepaids.
SEPRACORINC.
Theincreaseduseofprescriptionsleepaidsisduenotsomuchtoanincreaseinthenumberofinsomniacs,astothebillionsofdollarsthedrugcompaniesrespendingonprintandTVadvertising.ConsiderSepracor'
sadsforLunesta,featuringapalegreenLunamothflittingaroundtheheadofapeacefulsleeper.Sepracorspent$2.98millioninconsumeradvertisingin2006,anditsstockandsaleshavejumpedduetoitssuccessfulcampaign.Thedrugindustryasawholespentmorethan$4billiononconsumeradsin2005,morethanafivefoldincreasein10years.ItsaggressivepUllmarketingstrategyhas,however,promptedintensedebateandscrutinyfromCongress.Afterall,whileaggressiveadvertisingofMerck'
sVioxxgeneratedhugeprofits,itexposedhousandsofU.S.adultstoheartattackrisks.Criticsofthenewdrugadssaythedrugstheytouttreatsymptomsratherthanspurringconsumerstodiscover
thereasontheycan'
tsleep(whichcanrangefromsimplestresstoseriousillness).Proponentsofsuchadssaythatinaneraofmanagedcareandshorteneddoctorvisits,adseducatepatientsandsparkimportantconversationswithdoctors.AlthoughthepharmaceuticalindustryisunlikelytopUllback,Bristol-MyersSquibbCo.haswonsomekudosforvoluntarilybanningadsduringthefirstyearnewdrugsareonthemarkets.
TopmarketingcompaniessuchasCoca-Cola,Intel,andNikeskillfullyemploybothpushandpullstrategies.Marketingactivitiesdirectedtowardsthechannelaspartofapushstrategyaremoreeffectivewhenaccompaniedbyawell-designedandwell-executedpullstrategythatactivatesconsumerdemand.Ontheotherhand,withoutatleastsomeconsumerinterest,itcanbeverydifficulttogainmuchchannelacceptanceandsupport.
ChannelDevelopment
AnewfirmtypicallystartsasalocaloperationseIlinginafairlycircumscribedmarket,usingıexistingintermediaries.Thenumberofsuchintermediariesisapttobelimited:
afewmanıufacturers'
salesagents,afewwholesalers,severalestablishedretailers,afewtruckingcomıpanies,andafewwarehouses.Decidingonthebestchannelsmightnotbeaproblem;
theıproblemisoftentoconvincetheavailableinterımediariestohandlethefirm'
sline.
Ifthefirmissuccessful,itmightbranchintonewmarketsandusedifferentchannelsindifferentmarkets.Insmallermarkets,thefirmmightselldirectlytoretailers;
inlargermarkets,itmightsellthroughdistributors.Inruralareas,itmightworkwithgeneral-goodsmerchants;
inurbanareas,withlimited-linemerchants.Inonepartofthecountry,itmightgrantexclusivefranchises;
inanother,itmightseJJthroughaJJoutletswitIingtohandlethemerchandise.Inonecountry,itmightuseinternationalsalesagents;
inanother,itmightpartnerwithalocalfirm.
Internationalmarketsposedistinctchallenges.Customers'
shoppinghabitscanvarybycountries,andmanyretailerssuchasGermany'
sAldi,theUnitedKingdom'
sTesco,andSpain'
sZarahaveredefinedthemselvestoacertaindegreewhenenteringanewmarkettobettertailortheirimagetolocalneedsandwants.Retailersthathavelargelystucktothesamesellingformularegardlessofgeography,suchasEddieBauer,Marks&
Spencer,andWal-Mart,marketingstrategyforItsentranceinto1MUS.markettoslockdifferentnationalmanufacturerhavesometimesencounteredtroubleinenteringnewmarkets.
Inshort,thechannelsystemevolvesasafunctionoflocalopportunitiesandconditions,emergingthreatsandopportunities,companyresourcesandcapabilities,andotherfactors.ConsidersomeofthechallengesDellhasencounteredinrecentyears.
DELL
DellrevolutionizedthepersonalcomputercategorybysellingproductsdirectlytocustomersviathetelephoneandlatertheInternet,ratherthanthroughretailersorresellers.CustomerscouldcustomdesigntheexactPCtheywanted,andrigorouscostcuttingallowedforloweverydayprices.Soundlikeawinningformula?
Itwasforalmosttwodecades.But2006sawthecompanyencounteranumberofproblemsthatledtoasteepstockpricedecline.First,reinvigoratedcompetitorssuchasHPnarrowedthegapinproductivityandprice.Alwaysfocusedmoreonthebusinessmarket,Dellstruggledtoselleffectivelytotheconsumermarket.AshiftinconsumerpreferencestobUyinretailstoresasopposedtobuyingdirectdidn'
thelp,butself-inflicteddamagefromanultraefficientsupplychainmodelthatsqueezedcosts-andquality-outofcustomerservicewasperhapsthemostpainfuLManagersevaluatedcalfcenteremployeesprimarilyonhowfongtheystayedoneachcalf-arecipefordisasterasscoresofcustomersfelttheirproblemswereignoredornotproperlyhandled.AlackofR&
Dspendingthathinderednew-productdevelopmentandledtoalackofdifferentiationdidn'
thelpeither.Clearly,Dellwasenteringanewchapterinitshistorythatwouldrequireafundamentalrethinkingofitschannelstrategyanditsmarketingapproachasawhole.
HybridChannels
Today'
ssuccessfulcompaniesarealsomultiplyingthenumberof"
go-to-market"
orhybridchannelsinanyonemarketarea.IncontrasttoDell,HPhasuseditssalesforcetoselltolargeaccounts,outboundtelemarketingtoselltomedium-sizedaccounts,directmailwithaninboundnumbertoselltosmallaccounts,retailerstoselltostillsmalleraccounts,andtheInternettosellspecialtyitems.Staplesmarketsthroughitstraditionalretailchannel,adirect-responseInternetsite,virtualmalls,andthousandsoflinksonaffiliatedsites.
Companiesthatmanagehybridchannelsmustmakesurethesechannelsworkwelltogetherandmatcheachtargetcustomer'
spreferredwaysofdoingbusiness.Customersexpectchannelintegration,characterizedbyfeaturessuchas:
theabilitytoorderaproductonlineandpickitupataconvenientretaillocation;
theabilitytoreturnanonline-orderedproducttoanearby
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