Language Learning Strategies and Second Language Acquisition.docx
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Language Learning Strategies and Second Language Acquisition.docx
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LanguageLearningStrategiesandSecondLanguageAcquisition
LanguageLearningStrategiesandSecondLanguageAcquisition
Abstract:
Therehasbeenaprominentshiftwithinthefieldoflanguagelearningandteachingoverthelasttwentyyearswithgreatemphasisbeingputonlearnersandlearningratherthanonteachersandteaching.InParalleltothisnewshiftofinterest,howlearnersprocessnewinformationandwhatkindsofstrategiestheyemploytounderstand,learnorremembertheinformationhasbeentheprimaryconcernoftheresearchersdealingwiththeareaofforeignlanguageleaming.(MuratHismanoglu,2000)Thispaperprovidesthebackgroundoflanguagelearningstrategies,andgivesclassificationanddefinitionsofdifferentlearningstrategies,aimingtofindtheproperstrategiesfordifferentaspectsoflearning.Italsostressestheimportanceoflanguagelearningstrategiesforforeignlanguagelearningandtheteacher’sroleinstrategytraining.
Keywords:
learningstrategies,strategytraining
Introduction
FromGrammarTranslation,DirectMethod,andtheAudiolingualMethodtoCommunicativeTeachingApproach,TotalPhysicalResponseMethos,theSilenceMethod,andSuggestopediaMethod,thenewmethodsofteachingturnuponeafteranotherinordertoimprovetheefficiencyofteaching.Thelearningresult,however,isnotgreatlyenhancedbytheuseoftheseteachingmethodsinthesecondlanguageclassroom.Teachersandresearcherscametorealizethatteachingisabilateralactivitiesincludingteachers’teachingandstudents’learning.(TIANJinping,2006)Itiscertainlyunsuccessfulifyouonlyemphasizeonteachingbutnotlearning.Astheknowledgeofsecondlanguageacquisitionincreasedmarkedlyduringthe1970s,thefocusoftheresearchesshiftedfromexaminingtheteachingmethodtoinvestigatingtheprocessesoflearning.Mostoftheresearcherwerepromptedbyoneintriguingquestion:
whydoindividualachievedifferentoutputwheneverythingelse,includingteachers,teachingmethodandteachingmaterials,remainsthesame?
Andwhatattributestothesedifferences?
Therefore,thecognitiveandsocioculturalfactorsofthelearnerwerestudiedextensively.Itwasagainstthisbackgroundthattheissueoflearningstrategyinsecondlanguagelearningisbroughtintofocus.Uptonow,ithasbeenwidelyacknowledgedthatlanguage-learningstrategiesexistandinfluencetwoaspectsofsecondlanguagelearning:
“therateofacquisitionandtheultimatelevelofachievement”.(Ellis,1994)
1Thebackgroundanddefinitionoflanguagelearningstrategies
ThewordstrategyoriginatesfromtheancientGreektermstrategia,meaninggeneralshiportheartofwaranditinvolvestheoptimalmanagementoftroops,ships,oraircraftinaplannedcampaign.Laterthespecificimplicationofthetermistomeanaplan,steporactiontowardachievementofanobject.(YUBo,2001)
Whenthestrategyconceptisintroducesineducation,ithastakenonanewmeaningandhasbeenfurthertransformedintolearningstrategies.
Beforedefininglanguagelearningstrategies,weshouldcharacterizeitfirst.Althoughthereisconsiderabledebateastoappropriatewaysofdefininglanguagelearningstrategies,therearenumberofbasiccharacteristicsinthegenerallyacceptedviewoflanguagelearningstrategies.First,languagelearningstrategiesarelearnergenerated.Inotherwords,theyarestepstakenbylanguagelearners.Second,languagelearningstrategiesenhancelanguagelearningandhelpdeveloplanguagecompetence,asreflectedinthelearner’sskillinlistening,speaking,reading,orwriting.
Thelanguagelearningstrategyliteratureindicatesthatanumberoffurtheraspectsoflanguagelearningstrategiesarelessuniformlyaccepted.Whendiscussinglanguagelearningstrategies,Oxford(1990)andotherssuchasWendenandRubin(1987)notadesireforcontrolandautonomyoflearningonthepartofthelearnerthroughlanguagelearningstrategies.Cohen(1990)insistedthatonlyconsciousstrategiesarelanguagelearningstrategies,andthattheremustbeachoiceinvolvedonthepartofthelearner.Inadditiontothecharacteristicsnotedabove,Oxford(1990)summarizesherviewoflanguagelearningstrategiesbyotherkeyfeatures:
·Theyallowlearnerstobecomemoreself-directed.
·Theyexpandtheroleoflanguageteachers.
·Theyareproblem-oriented.
·Theyinvolvemanyaspects,notjustthecognitive.
·Theycanbetaught.
·theyareflexible.
·Theyareinfluencedbyavariety.
Thetermlanguagelearningstrategyhasbeendefinedbymanyresearchers.WendenandRubindefinedlearningstrategiesas“...anysetsofoperations,steps,plans,routinesusedbythelearnertofacilitatetheobtaining,storage,retrieval,anduseofinformation.”RichardsandPlattstatethatlearningstrategiesare“intentionalbehaviorandthoughtsusedbylearnersduringlearningsoastobetterhelpthemunderstand,learn,orremembernewinformation.”FaerchClausandCasperstressthatalearningstrategyis“anattempttodeveloplinguisticandsociolinguisticcompetenceinthetargetlanguage.”AccordingtoStern,”theconceptoflearningstrategyisdependentontheassumptionthatlearnersconsciouslyengageinactivitiestoachievecertaingoalsandlearningstrategiescanberegardedasbroadlyconceivedintentionaldirectionsandlearningtechniques.”Alllanguagelearnersuselanguagelearningstrategieseitherconsciouslyorunconsciouslywhenprocessingnewinformationandperformingtasksinthelanguageclassroom.Sincelanguageclassroomislikeaproblem-solvingenvironmentinwhichlanguagelearnersarelikelytofacenewinputanddifficulttasksgivenbytheirinstructors,learners’attemptstofindthequickestoreasiestwaytodowhatisrequired,thatis,usinglanguagelearningstrategiesisinescapable.
2Theclassificationoflanguagelearningstrategies
Differentscholarslaytheirownstressondefininglearningstrategies,therefore,thereisadiversityofclassificationsoflearningstrategies.Cohendividesthelearningstrategiesintotwogroups,oneislanguagelearningstrategiesandtheotherislanguageusingstrategies.Theformerincludesstrategiesforidentifyingthematerialthatneedstobelearned,distinguishingitfromothermaterial,groupingitforeasierlearningmemorizingitwhennaturalacquisitionisimpossibleandsoon.Thelatter,morespecially,includesfoursubsetsofstrategies:
retrievalstrategies,rehearsalstrategies,coverstrategiesandcommunicationstrategies.(ZHUXiaohua,2004)
Rubinprefertouseterm“learnerstrategies”tomeanlearningstrategies.Sherecognizesthreemajortypesoflearnerstrategiesbasedtoreception-productionmodel.Learningstrategiesrefertothestrategiesthatmaydirectlyaffectlearning,whichcanbefurtherdividedinto“cognitivestrategies”.Communicationstrategiesareconcernedwithlanguageproduction,enablinglearnerstokeepthecommunicationgoingdespitetheirlimitationsinknowledgeandcompetence.Socialstrategiesconcernaboutthewaysinwhichlearnersselectinteractwithotherlearnersandnativespeakers.
Basedontheinformation-processingmodel,O’MalleyandChamotrecognizethreemajortypesofstrategy.Theyaremetacognitivestrategies,cognitivestrategiesandsocial-affectivestrategies.
Oxford,emphasizingontheeffectthatlearningstrategieshaveonlearningprocess,grouplearningstrategiesintotwomajorcategories:
directstrategiesandindirectstrategies.Languagelearningstrategiesthatdirectlyinvolvethetargetlanguagearecalleddirectstrategies,andthestrategiesthatprovideindirectsupportforlanguagelearningthroughfocusing,planning,evaluating,controllinganxiety,increasingcooperationandothermeansarecalledindirectstrategies.
2.1Oxford’sdirectstrategies
Whataredirectstrategies?
AccordingtoOxford,”Languagelearningstrategiesthatdirectlyinvolvethetargetlanguagearecalleddirectstrategies”.Asseeninthediagram.OxforddefinesMemorystrategies,Cognitivestrategies,andCompensationstrategiesasdirectstrategies.
“Memorystrategies,suchasgroupingorusingimagery,haveahighlyspecificfunction:
helpingstudentsstoreandretrievenewinformation.Cognitivestrategies,suchassummarizingorreasoningdeductively,enablelearnerstounderstandandproducenewlanguagebymanydifferentmeans.Compensationstrategies,likeguessingorusingsynonyms,allowlearnerstousethelanguagedespitetheiroftenlargegapsinknowledge”.Basedonhercategory,IwouldnowliketoconsiderhowlearnerstousethesestrategiesinEFLinChinaandhowIcanteachthesestrategies.
Memorystrategies
MemorystrategiesaswellasCognitivestrategiesareveryimportantforvocabularybuilding.However,theinstructionforvocabularybuildinghasheavilyreliedonrotememorizationforalongtime.Asawayofcreatingmentallinkages,groupingorassociatingwillincreasestudents’vocabulary;semanticmappingorusingimaginarywilltightentheirmemory;andusingphysicalresponseswillallowthemtomemorizewordslikepartsofabody.Througheffectivestrategyteaching,studentswillacquirenotonlyvocabularybutalsothewayforstudying.Inthesenseswhenstudentsmemorizingwords.Accordingtotheresultsofthetest,IwouldrecommendthatEnglishteachershelplearnerstoutilizethefivesenseswhentheyteachEnglishandstudentsshouldtakenotesforvocabularybygrouping,associatingorsemanticmapping.
Cognitivestrategies
Cognitivestrategiesareveryimportantstrategiestoimprovestudents’ability.,specially,thesestrategiesarecrucialforacademicskills.Asexamplesofpracticing,Oxfordlistsrepeating,formallypracticingwithsoundsandwritingsystem,recognizingandusingformu
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