food security problem.docx
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food security problem.docx
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Introduction:
FoodSecurityIsaGlobalConcern
Document(s)8of34
MustafaKoc,RodMacRae,LucJ.A.MougeotetJenniferWelsh
Inrecentdecades,demographic(人口)andeconomicgrowthhavechallengedthelimitsofeconomic,social,andecological(生态)sustainability(可持续性),givingrisetoquestionsaboutfoodsecurityatthegloballevel.Despitetechnologicaladvancesthathavemodernized(现代化)theconditionsofproductionanddistributionoffood,hungerandmalnutrition(营养不良)stillthreatenthehealthandwell-beingofmillionsofpeoplearoundtheworld.
Accesstofoodisstillperceivedbymanyasaprivilege特权,ratherthanabasichumanright,anditisestimatedthatabout35000peoplearoundtheworlddieeachdayfromhunger.Anevenlargernumberofpeople(mainlywomen,children,andtheelderly)sufferfrommalnutrition.Farfromdisappearing,hungerandmalnutritionareontheincrease,eveninadvancedindustrializedcountrieslikeCanada,whereeachyearanestimated2.5millionpeopledependonfoodbanks.About30millionpeopleintheUnitedStatesarereportedtobeunabletobuyenoughfoodtomaintaingoodhealth.Thecontinuingrealityofhungerandtheunsustainabilityofcurrentpractices,bothlocallyandglobally,makefoodsecurityanessentialconcern.
AccordingtotheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization’s(FAO’s)widelyaccepteddefinition,
“Foodsecurity”meansthatfoodisavailableatalltimes;thatallpersonshavemeansofaccesstoit;thatitisnutritionally营养adequate充足intermsof在以下方面quantity,qualityandvariety;andthatitisacceptablewithinthegivenculture.Onlywhenalltheseconditionsareinplacecanapopulationbeconsidered“foodsecure.”
Toachievelastingself-relianceatthenationalandhousehold家庭levels,initiatives倡议mustbefoundedontheprinciplesofeconomicfeasibility可行性,equity,broadparticipation参与,andthesustainable可持续性发展useofnaturalresources.
Inrecentyears,mostoftheresearchinitiativesforfoodsecurityhavefocusedonfourkeycomponentsoftheFAO’sdefinition:
∙Availability可用性—Providingasufficientsupplyoffoodforallpeopleatalltimeshashistoricallybeenamajorchallenge.Althoughtechnicalandscientificinnovationshavemadeimportantcontributionsfocusedonquantityandeconomiesofscale,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtothesustainabilityofsuchpractices.
∙Accessibility交通—Theequalityofaccesstofoodisadimensionoffoodsecurity.Withinandbetweensocieties,inequitieshaveresultedinseriousentitlementproblems,reflectingclass,gender,ethnic,racial,andagedifferentials,aswellasnationalandregionalgapsindevelopment.Mostmeasurestoprovideemergencyfoodaidhaveattemptedtohelpthedisadvantagedbuthavehadlimitedsuccessinovercomingthestructuralconditionsthatperpetuate延续suchinequities不公平.
∙Acceptability—Asessentialingredients成分inhumanhealthandwell-being,foodandfoodpracticesreflectthesocialandculturaldiversity多样化ofhumanity.Effortstoprovidefoodwithoutpayingattentiontothesymbolic象征roleoffoodinpeople’sliveshavefailedtosolvefood-securityproblems.Thisdimensionoffoodsecurityisalsoimportantindeterminingwhetherinformationandfood-systeminnovationswillbeacceptedinacountry,giventhesocialandecological生态concernsofitscitizens.
∙Adequacy充足—Foodsecurityalsorequiresthatadequatemeasuresareinplaceatalllevelsofthefoodsystemtoguaranteethesustainabilityofproduction,distribution,consumption,andwastemanagement.Asustainablefoodsystemshouldhelptosatisfybasichumanneeds,withoutcompromising损害theabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirneeds.Itmustthereforemaintainecologicalintegrityandintegrateconservationanddevelopment.
Unfortunately不幸的,anumberofglobaleconomicandecologicalproblemscontinuetolimittheprospectofglobalfoodsecurity.Worldpercapitacerealproduction(62%ofleast-developedcountries’[LDCs’]foodconsumption),forexample,hasbeenincreasingonlymarginallyinrecentyears.Infact,ithasevenbeenonthedeclineinsub-SaharanAfricaandinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,particularlyinlow-incomecountriesstruckbyeconomicreforms,naturalandotherdisasters,andotherfactors.TheLDCs’dependenceonnetfoodimportshasbeengrowingandissettocontinuetogrow;currently,104of132LDCsarenetimporters,althoughimportshavebroughtlittlereliefoverall(Singer1997).Insub-SaharanAfrica,thenumberofchronicallyundernourishedpeoplemorethandoubledin1970–91,notwithstandingthatthisregiondependedonfoodaidforhalfitstotalfoodimports.Thepopulationofthisregionisexpectedtomorethandoubleby2020(deHaenandLindland1997).
Regionalandglobaleconomiccrisesandchronicproblemsofunderdevelopmentmakethesituationparticularlybadinthedevelopingworld.Theoverallmeanpercapitaincomeofso-calledBlackAfrica,forexample,is,atitsbest,nohigherthanitwasin1960,andtheregionhaslessweightintheglobaleconomytodaythanitdidinthe1960s(Brandt1997).Economicinformalizationclearlyaccompaniesaneconomy’sdisintegration.Realpricesindomesticfoodmarketshaveincreasedoverthelastfewyearsandaresettoincreasefurther.Toimprovefoodsecurityandglobalfoodsupplies,policyscenariosofthe2020VisionInitiativerequireincreasedexportsofstaplefoodsfromindustrializedcountriestotheLDCs(vonBraun1997).Butinsufficientpurchasingpoweramongtheworld’spoorest800millionpeopleremainsaprimaryobstacletosuchstrategies.
Multilateralagreementsintradeandinvestmentfurtherthreatentheavailabilityandaccessibilityoffoodforlargesegmentsoftheworld’spopulation.ManyexpertsagreethatthereductioninworldsurplusesandtheincreaseininternationalpricesencouragedbytheUruguayRoundoftheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTradeposeanimmediatethreattoregionsalreadysufferingseverefoodinsecurity.Thedurationofthisthreatisunknown.
Globalprospectsforimprovingfoodsecurityarefurtherthreatenedbyenvironmentallimitationsonproductionincreases,eveninGreenRevolutioncountries,andbygrowingpoverty.InAsia,alargeshareofthepopulationwillsoonbewithoutaccesstoadequatefoodsupplies(Zarges1997).So,despitethetechnical
modernizationoffoodproductionanddistribution,hungerandmalnutritionstillunderminethehealthandwell-beingofmillionsofpeopleandactuallyseemtobeworsening,particularlyamonglow-incomeurbanresidents.ThisledDrUweWerblow(1997)oftheEuropeanCommissioninBrusselstorecommendfavouringproductionofmoretraditionalfoodcropsinruralareasanddevelopingnon-land-usingproductioninperi-urbanandurbanareas.
Foodsecurityandurbanpopulations
Althoughtheconsequencescanbevisible,thecausesandthescopeoffood-securityproblemsforurbanpopulationsmaynotbeapparent.Fromproductiontoconsumption,thefoodsystemcomprisescomplexinterrelatedandinterdependentparts:
socialandeconomicelements,agencies,processes,andstructures.Theirinterdependentrelationshiprequiresastructuralandsystemicanalysisfocusingonglobalaswellaslocallinkages.Therural–urbanandlocal–globalinterrelationshipsmakeitimpossibletostudyurbanfood-securityissuesinisolation.Yet,itisalsoclearthattheextraordinaryurbangrowthinthe20thcenturyandincreasingthreatstofoodsecurityformillionsofurbandwellersmeritsparticularattention.Thescopeandurgencyoftheproblemsrequireanalysesoffood-securityquestionsforurbanareasandnewpoliciesandpracticestoencouragetheadoptionofsustainableurbanfoodsystems.
Foodsecurityhasbecomeanincreasingconcernofurbanpopulations.Weidentifyfourmajorchallengestofocusouranalysis.First,urbancentreshaveexpandedenormously,inpopulationandinsize.Inthe20thcentury,urbangrowthhasreachedunprecedentedlevelsinmostpartsoftheworld.Inthreerecentdecadesalone,theurbanpopulationindevelopedcountriesdoubled,from448millionin1950to875millionin1990.Inthesameperiodtheurbanpopulationindevelopingcountriesmorethanquintupled,from280millionto1.6billion.In1990,33%oftheworld’surbanpopulationwaslivingincitieswith1millionormoreinhabitants.Bytheendofthiscentury,sixofthelargestcitieswillbefoundinthedevelopingworld.Havingurbansettlementsapproaching30millionpeoplewilllikelystrainalreadyoverburdenedservicesincountrieswithlimitedresourcesandextremeincomeinequalities.Urbanexpansionhasconvertedasignificantportionofgreenspaceandgood-quality,oftenscarce,agriculturalland.Ithasalreadyincreasedwaterandairpollutionandcreatedseriouswaste-disposalproblems.Also,zoningbylaws,speculativelandmarkets,andsoilandwatercontaminationhavecreatedobstaclestoeffectivelocalfoodsystemsandurbanagriculture.
Asecondchallengehasbeentheunevennessofaccesstofood.Historically,povertyhasbeenpredominantlyaruralphenomenon.Yet,asthemajorityoftheworld’spopulationmovestourbanareas,weareseeingareversalintheregionaldistributionofpoverty.WorldBank(1990)figuresindicatedthatin1988about25%ofthepoorestsegmentsofthedevelopingworldwerelivinginurbanareas.TheWorldBankalsoestimatedthatby2000thiswillreach50%(WorldBank1990).Indevelopingcountries,theranksoftheurbanpoorhaveswelledasaresultofsuchfactorsasthecontinuousmigrationoftheruralpoorintothecities,thelimitedabilityoftheurbaninformalsectortoabsorbtheunemployed,thelimitedemployment
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