专业英语材料Word格式文档下载.docx
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专业英语材料Word格式文档下载.docx
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Untilveryrecently,organizationstooka“melting-pot”approachtodifferencesinorganizations.Itwasassumedthatpeoplewhoweredifferentwouldsomehowautomaticallywanttoassimilate.Buttoday’smanagershavefoundthatemployeesdonotsetasidetheirculturalvaluesandlifestylepreferenceswhentheycometowork.Thediversitythatexistsintheworkforcerequiresmanagerstobemoresensitivetothedifferencesthateachgroupbringstotheworksetting.
Thetypicalemployeeinthe1960sor1970sshowedupattheworkplaceMondaythroughFridayanddidhisorherjobineight-ornine-hourchunksoftime.Theworkplaceandhourswereclearlyspecified.Anumberofforceshavecontributedtoblurringthelinesbetweenemployeeworkandpersonallives.First,thecreationofglobalorganizations,second,communicationtechnologyandthird,organizationsareaskingemployeestoputinlongerhours.It’snotunusualforemployeestoworkmorethan45hoursaweek,andsomeworkmuchmorethan50.Finally,fewerfamilieshaveonlyasinglebreadwinner.
TherewasatimeincorporateAmericawhenorganizationsfollowedarelativelysimplerule:
Ingoodtimesyouhireemployees;
inbadtimes,youfirethem.Sincethelate1980sthat“rule”nolongerholdstrue.
ThisdownsizingphenomenonisnotjustintheUnitedStates.Jobsarebeingeliminatedinalmostallindustrializednations.Abettertermforthisorganizationalactionmightberightsizing.Rightsizinginvolveslinkingstaffinglevelstoorganizationalgoals.Rightsizingpromotesgreateruseofoutsidefirmsforprovidingnecessaryproductsandservices—calledoutsourcing—inanefforttoremainflexibleandresponsivetotheever-changingworkenvironment.
Thousandsoforganizationsintheglobalvillagehavedecidedtheycouldsavemoneyandincreasetheirflexibilitybyconvertingmanyjobsintotemporaryorpart-timepositions—givingrisetowhatiscommonlyreferredtoasthecontingentworkforce.Whatissuesdocontingentworkerscreateformanagers?
Eachcontingentworkermayneedtobetreateddifferentlyintermsofpracticesandpolicies.Managersmustalsomakesurethatcontingentworkersdonotperceivethemselvesassecond-classworkers.
Cyclicallabortrendsaredifficulttopredict.Theworldeconomyinthelate1990s,forinstance,wasgenerallyquiterobustandlabormarketsweretight.Then,in2001,mostdevelopedcountriessufferedaneconomicrecession.Layoffswerewidespread,andthesupplyofskilledworkersbecamemustmoreplentiful.Incontrast,demographictrendsaremuchmorepredictable.Exceptforsomeunforeseeableeconomicorpoliticalcalamity,therewillbealaborshortageforatleastanother10to15years.TheU.S.laborshortageisafunctionoftwofactors—birthratesandlaborparticipationrates.
UnittwoStrategicManagement
PartOneWhatisstrategicmanagement
Afirm’sstrategyisitstheoryofhowtogaincompetitiveadvantages.Thesetheories,likealltheories,arebasedonassumptionsandhypothesesabouthowcompetitioninanindustryislikelytoevolve.Whenthoseassumptionsandhypothesesareconsistentwiththeactualevolutionofcompetitioninanindustry,afirm’sstrategyismorelikelytobeabletogenerateacompetitiveadvantage.
Thestrategicmanagementprocessbeginswhenafirmidentifiesitsmission,oritslong-termpurpose.Thismissionisoftenwrittendownintheformofamissionstatement.Missionstatements,bythemselves,canhavenoimpactonperformance,canenhanceafirm’sperformance,orcanhurtafirm’sperformance.Objectivesaremeasurablemilestonesfirmsusetoevaluatewhetherornottheyareaccomplishingtheirmission.Externalandinternalanalysesaretheprocessesthroughwhichafirmidentifiesitsenvironmentalthreatsandopportunitiesandorganizationalstrengthsandweaknesses.Armedwiththeseanalyses,itispossibleforafirmtoengageinstrategicchoice.Strategiescanbeclassifiedintotwocategories:
business-levelstrategies(includingcostleadershipandproductdifferentiation)andcorporate-levelstrategies(includingverticalintegration,strategicalliances,diversification,andmergersandacquisitions).Strategyimplementationfollowsstrategicchoiceandinvolveschoosingorganizationalstructures,managementcontrolpolicies,andcompensationschemesthatsupportafirm’sstrategies.
Theultimateobjectiveofthestrategicmanagementprocessistherealizationofcompetitiveadvantage.Afirmhasacompetitiveadvantageifitiscreatingmoreeconomicvaluethanitsrivals.Competitiveadvantagescanbetemporaryorsustained.Competitiveparityexistswhenafirmcreatesthesameeconomicvalueasitsrivals.Acompetitivedisadvantageexistswhenafirmcreateslesseconomicvaluethanitsrivals,anditcanbeeithertemporaryorsustained.
Therearetwopopularmeasuresofafirm’scompetitiveadvantage:
accountingperformanceandeconomicperformance.Accountingperformancemeasurescompetitiveadvantageusingvariousratioscalculatedwithafirm’sprofitandlossandbalancesheetstatements.Afirm’saccountingperformanceiscomparedwiththeaveragelevelofaccountingperformanceinafirm’sindustry.Economicperformancecomparesafirm’slevelofreturntoitscostofcapital.Afirm’scostofcapitalistherateofreturnithadtopromisetopaytoitsdebtandequityinvestorstoinducethemtoinvestinthefirm.
Whilemanyfirmsusethestrategicmanagementprocesstochooseandimplementstrategies,notallstrategiesarechosenthisway.Somestrategiesemergeovertime,asfirmsrespondtounanticipatedchangesinthestructureofcompetitioninanindustry.
Thereareatleastthreereasonswhystudentsneedtounderstandstrategyandthestrategicmanagementprocess.First,itcanhelpindecidingwheretowork.Second,onceyouhaveajob,itcanhelpyoutobesuccessfulinthatjob.Finally,ifyouhaveajobinasmallorentrepreneurialfirm,youmaybecomeinvolvedinstrategyandthestrategicmanagementprocessfromtheverybeginning.
Whilepursuinginternationalopportunitiesforcompetitiveadvantagecancreateuniquechallengesandopportunitiesforfirms,inthisbooksuchinternationalstrategiesareanalyzedasdifferentwaysthatfirmscanrealizethecompetitiveadvantagesassociatedwiththebusinessandcorporatestrategiesidentifiedinthestrategicmanagementprocess.Thatsaid,theuniquechallengesandopportunitiesassociatedwithusinginternationaloperationstorealizethesebusinessandcorporatestrategieswouldbeexaminedineachchapterofthebook.
ParttwoAFirm’sExternalEnvironmentEvaluation
Thestrategicmanagementprocessrequiresthatafirmengageinananalysisofthreatsandopportunitiesinitscompetitiveenvironmentbeforeastrategicchoicecanbemade.Thisanalysisbeginswithunderstandingthegeneralenvironmentwithinwhichafirmoperates.Thisgeneralenvironmenthassixcomponents:
technologicalchange,demographictrends,culturaltrends,economicclimate,legalandpoliticalconditions,andspecificinternationalevents.Whilesomeofthesecomponentsofthegeneralenvironmentcanaffectafirmdirectly,morefrequentlytheyaffectafirmthroughtheirimpactonitslocalenvironment.
Thetheoreticalframeworkthatenablestheanalysisofafirm’slocalenvironmentandlinksthestructureoftheindustrywithinwhichafirmoperates,itsstrategicalternatives,andfirmperformanceiscalledtheStructure-Conduct-Performance(orS-C-P)model.Inthismodel,structureisdefinedasindustrystructureandincludesthoseattributesofafirm’sindustrythatconstrainafirm’sstrategicalternativesandperformance.Conductinthismodelisdefinedasafirm’sstrategies.Performanceinthismodelreferseithertotheperformanceofafirminanindustry,ortheperformanceoftheentireeconomy—althoughtheformerdefinitionofperformanceismoreimportantformoststrategicmanagementpurposes.
TheS-C-Pmodelcanbeusedtodeveloptoolsforanalyzingthreatsinafirm’scompetitiveenvironment.Themostinfluentialofthesetoolsiscalledthe“fiveforcesframework.”Thesefiveforcesare:
thethreatofentry,thethreatofrivalry,thethreatofsubstitutes,thethreatofsuppliers,andthethreatofbuyers.Thethreatofentrydependsontheexistenceand“height”ofbarrierstoentry.Commonbarrierstoentryincludeeconomiesofscale,productdifferentiation,costadvantagesindependentofscale,andgovernmentregulationonentry.Thethreatofrivalrydependsonthenumberandcompetitivenessoffirmsinanindustry.Thethreatofrivalryishighinanindustrywhentherearelargenumbersofcompetingfirms,competingfirmsareroughlythesamesizeandhavethesameinfluence,growthinanindustryisslow,thereisnoproductdifferentiation,andproductivecapacityisaddedinlargeincrements.Thethreatofsubstitutesdependsonhowclosesubstituteproductsandservicesare—inperformanceandcost—toproductsandservicesinanindustry.Whererivalsallmeetthesamecustomerneedsinapproximatelythesameway,substitutesmeetthesamecustomerneeds,butdosoinverydifferentways.Thethreatofsuppliersinanindustrydependsonthenumberanddistinctivenessoftheproductssuppliersprovidetoanindustry.Thethreatofsuppliersincreaseswhenasupplier’sindustryisdominatedbyafewfirms,whensuppliersselluniqueorhighlydifferentiatedproducts,whensuppliersarenotthreatenedbysubstitutes,whensuppliersthreatenforwardverticalintegration,andwhenfirmsarenotimportantcustomersforsuppliers.Finally,thethreatofbuyersdependsonthenumberandsizeofanindustry’scustomers.Thethreatofbuyersisgreaterwhenthenumber
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