Unit 10路Word下载.docx
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Unit 10路Word下载.docx
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Fillineachspacewithoneproperword.
Mostcontractsareformedwithanimplicitunderstanding_____neitherpartyneedperform_____theotherhascompletedhisorherpromisedperformance.Anexception______thisunderstandingoccurswhenapartyhasperformedmostofhisorherobligationandthepartnotperformedisrelativelyimmaterial.Thedoctrineofsubstantialperformanceprovidesthatinsuchacase,the_____partymustperform,althoughheorshemaysecuremoneydamagestotheextent____heorshewasdamaged____lackofcompleteperformance.
参考
That/unless/to/opposite/that/by
2.Requirementforavalidcontract
Acontractisbelievedtotakeplacewhenanofferismadeandthenaccepted.Allcontractsmustbeenteredintobothwillinglyandfreely,andanoffergenerallycannotberejectedonceithasbeenaccepted.
Thefirstrequirementforavalidcontractisanagreement.Basically,anagreementconsistsofanofferandanacceptanceofthatoffer.Second,theagreementmustbesupportedbyconsideration,somethingbargainedforandgiveninexchangeforapromise.Third,thepartiesmusthavecapacity,orthelegalabilitytocontract.Fourth,thecontractmustbebasedonthegenuineassentofeachparty.Fifth,thesubjectmatterofthecontractmustbelegal.Thelegalityofthebargainwouldbequestionableifthepartiesagreedtodosomethingthatwouldviolateastatuteorpublicpolicy.Sixth,insomecasesacontractmustbeinproperform.
Insummary,tobevalid,acontractmustembodyanagreement:
(1)agreedbypartiesconcerned;
(2)supportedbyconsideration;
(3)madebypartieshavingthecapacitytocontract;
(4)basedontheseparties’genuineassent;
(5)groundedinalegalundertaking,and(6)expressedinproperform,ifapplicable.
Fillineachspacewithoneproperword.
Mostsimply,acontractisapromisethatisenforceable_____law.Becauseitisenforceable,therehaveariseninGreatBritain,continentalEurope,theUnitedStatesandnumerousotherareascomplexbodiesofcontractlawto_____ thenatureofcontractsandtheproblemsassociated_____theirenforcement.Acontractissaidto_____whenanofferismadeandthenaccepted.Allcontractsmustbeentered_____bothwillinglyandfreely,andanoffergenerallycannotbe______onceithasbeenaccepted.
By/clarify/with/exist/into/rejected
3.ClassificationofContractsandAgreements
Mostcontractsareclassifiedaseithercontractsbyspecialtyorsimplecontracts.Contractsbyspecialtydependfortheirvalidityontheformalityoftheirexecution.Theymustbewritten,sealedanddeliveredbythepartytobeboundbythecontract.Theusualformofspecialtycontractisacovenant.
Simplecontractsdonotdependfortheirvalidityonanyparticularformalityintheirexecutionbutratherontheexistenceoflegalconsideration(surrenderofarightinexchangeforthepromise).Asimplecontractmaybewrittenorverbalormayevenbeimpliedfromtheactsandconductoftheparties.
Mostcontractsinvolvebusinessdealings.Anothercommoncaseissalescontracts.Sellersofmajorappliancessuchasrefrigerators,airconditioners,andtelevisionsetsoftenofferextendedwarranties.Thisisarenewablecontractforwhichthebuyerpaysafeeeachyear.Inreturn,iftheappliancebreaksdown,thesellerwillrepairitatnoadditionalcost.Someofthesecontractsmayberenewedindefinitely.Anothercommonkindofcontractistheagreementnegotiatedbetweenlaborunionsandcorporations.Thesecontractscontainallthepointsatissuebetweenaunionandanemployer:
wages,benefits,cost-of-livingadjustment,overtimerules,senioritypolicy,workingconditions,andmore.Laborcontractsnormallyextendovershortlengthsoftimesuchasone,twoorthreeyears.Aftertheyexpire,theymustberenegotiatedintheprocesscalledcollectivebargaining.
Warranty保单extendedwarranty期限延长的保单Senioritypolicy资历规定
Collectivebargaining劳资谈判Abindingagreement有法律约束力的契约
Impliedcontract默认合同Renewablecontract可更新的合同Laborcontracts劳资合同
Tradeagreement
Inadditiontoformalagreementsbetweenmodernstatesinvolvinginimportanteconomictieswitheachother,lessformalanddurableagreementsarerelatedtosuchmattersastariffrates,navigationdues,customsformalities,air-transportclearancearrangements,qualityrestrictionsontradeinspecificcommodities,regulationofcommercial,financial,transportation,andcommunicationfacilities,standardsofcommercialandmaritimelaw,commercialarbitration,patents,trademarks,andcopyright.Reciprocaltradeagreementscharacteristicallyprovidethatimportdutiesonproductsoriginatinginthesignatorycountriesbelowerthanthedutiesonthesameclassesofarticlesimportedfromothernations.Althoughtendingtodiscriminateagainstthirdcountries,suchspecialarrangementscanbejustifiedwhenpolitical,economic,andgeographicaltiesareparticularlyclose,asintheCommonwealthofNationsoramongLatinAmericancountries.Theadvantagesthusobtainedareoffsetinpartthroughoperationofthemost-favored–nationclause.
Tariffrates关税率customsformalities海关惯例navigationdues航海税
Air-transportclearancearrangement空运许可证安排Commercialarbitration商业仲裁
TheCommonwealthofNations英联邦成员国Reciprocaltradeagreement互惠贸易协定
Thesignatorycountries签字国Themost-favored-nationclause最惠国条款
Treaty
Treatyisaformalagreementbetweentwoormoreindependentgovernments.Itisusuallyawrittendocument,butitmaybeaverbalstatementagreedtobyrepresentativesofthecountries.Throughoutworldhistory,treatieshaveplayedanimportantpartinrelationsbetweencountries.
Today,onlysovereignstatesareabletomaketreaties.Asovereignstateisonethatisfromoutsidecontrol.Forexample,Britainisasovereignstatebecauseitsgovernmentisfreetomakeitsowndecisions.ButtheBritishcolonyofGibraltarisnotfreetomakeitsowndecisions.Itisthereforenotasovereignstate,andcannotmakeitsowntreaties.
Atreatyismuchlikeacontractbetweenprivateindividuals.Inbothcases,thesigningpartiespromisetodoornottodosomeact.However,thereareimportantdifferencesbetweentreatiesandcontracts.Acontractisnotbindingifoneofthepartieshasforcedtheotherpartyintoagreement.Buttheuseofforcedoesnotmakeatreatyvoidunlesstheforceisusedagainstthegovernmentrepresentativewhoisworkingoutthetreatyterms.Unlikeaprivatecontract,atreatydoesnotgointoeffectuntilitisratified.Forexample,atreatybetweentheUnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdomisnotofficialuntilboththeUnitedStatesSenateandtheBritishCrownapproveit.
Thereareseveralkindsofinternationalagreementsthathavetheforceoftreaties.Oneoftheseiscalledaconvention.Thisisusuallyanagreementbetweenstatesrelatingtoasingletopic,suchasextradition.Aconcordatisanagreementbetweenthepopeandasovereignstate.Anagreementbetweentwomonarchsonaprivatematterisnotatreaty.
Treatiesareofdifferentkinds.Treatiesmaybedividedintoseveralclassesaccordingtotheirpurpose,althoughinternationallawrecognizesnoformaldistinctionsamongtreaties.Asingletreatymayincludeclausesunderseveralclasses.Someoftheclassesaredescribedbelow.
Political
Apeacetreatyisonekindofpoliticaltreaty.Forexample,theTreatyofParisof1783endedtheRevolutionaryWarinAmerica.
Commercial
Thesetreatiesincludeagreementsontariffs,navigation,fisheriesandconsularservices.Commercialtreatiesareformalagreementsconcludebetweenstatesforpurposeofestablishingmutualrightto,andregulatingconditionof,tradeandnavigationintheterritoriesofthesignatories.
Confederation(联盟)
ConfederationtreatiessetupsuchinternationalorganizationsastheUniversalPostalUnion.
Extradition引渡
Thesetreatiesdealwithescapedcriminals.Forexample,letussupposethattwocountrieshavesignedanextraditiontreaty.Ifacriminalfromonecountryfleestotheotherforsafety,thecriminalmustbereturned,orextradited,tosandtrialforthecrime.
Civiljustice民事审判
Thesetreatiesprotectacounty’strademarks,copyrightsandpatentsinforeigncountries.Somecivil-justicetreatiesdealwiththerightsofaliens.
Negation
Inmonarchies,thekingorqueenandhisorherlegalagentshavethepowertomaketreatiesandarerepresentedatnegotiationsbyadiplomaticagent,orenvoy.Forexample,inGreatBritainneitherhouseofParliamenthasanypowerovertreaties.ThepowerisreservedfortheBritishCrownorCabinet.
Enforcementoftreaties
Inancienttimes,acountryhadto“backup,”orguarantee,itstreatypromises.Onewayofdoingthiswastoexchangehostages.Eachcountrythatsignedthetreatywouldsendoneormoreimportantpeopletotheothercountriesthathadagreedtothetreaty.Hostageswereheldasprisoners.Theycouldbekilledifthetermsofthetreatywerenotcarriedout.
Termination
Treatiesmaybe
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