A Brief History Of Drugs药物简史Word文档格式.docx
- 文档编号:19437729
- 上传时间:2023-01-06
- 格式:DOCX
- 页数:9
- 大小:25.21KB
A Brief History Of Drugs药物简史Word文档格式.docx
《A Brief History Of Drugs药物简史Word文档格式.docx》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《A Brief History Of Drugs药物简史Word文档格式.docx(9页珍藏版)》请在冰豆网上搜索。
arechemicalcompoundsthatmodifythewaythebodyandmindwork.Mostpeoplethinkthatthesebiologicalactivitiesshouldhelporhealsickpeopleoranimals.
Thereis,however,noknowndrugthatisnotharmfulorevenpoisonousathighdoses,andmuchofthescientificworkondrugshasattemptedtowidenthegapbetweeneffectiveandtoxicdoses.
Theworddrug
hasacquiredbadconnotationsinrecentyearsbecausethewidespreadabuseofafewchemicalsthataffectthecentralnervoussystemhasbecomeaserioussociologicalproblem.Nevertheless,drugsactonmanyotherorgansinthebody,canbenefitaswellasharmthenervoussystem,andhavemadepossiblearevolutioninthewaymoderndoctorstreatdisease.
Justasthereisnohealthbenefitwithoutpotentialtoxicity,thereisnoabsolutegoodnessaboutdrugs.However,theirenormoushealthbenefitsoutweighthedrawbacksinindividualcases.Thehistory,discovery,manufacture,action,acceptance,andrejectionofdrugsarethethemesofthisbook.
Itusedtobesaidthatwhatdistinguisheshumansfromanimalsisthatpeopletakedrugs.Thisoldadageisnolongerquitetrue.Ratsandmonkeysthathavebeenaddictedexperimentallytosomedrugswillinjectthemselveswiththosedrugstosupporttheiraddictions.Butotherwisetheoldsayingstillholds.
HistoryOfDrugs
Thehistoryofdrugsisshroudedinthebeginningsofthehumanrace.Alcoholwasmade,drunk,andusedtoexcessasfarbackasmemoryandrecordsgo.Tobacco(Nicotiana),hemp(Cannabissativa),opiumpoppy(Papaversomniferum),andotherplantscontainingdrugshavebeenchewedandsmokedalmostaslongasalcohol,andcoffeehasbeenservedintheMiddleEastthroughoutthatarea'
shistory.
TobaccowascarriedfromVirginiatoEnglandbySirWalterRaleigh,whosepipesmokingpromptedElizabethItoremark,"
Idon'
tlikethisherb."
Ofcourse,thequeendidnotknowanythingabouttarandnicotine,butshebecameoneofthefirstpeopletoinitiatetheacrimoniousdebateabouttobaccoconstituentsthatwefacetoday.Likewise,theeffectsofcannabishavegivenitabadname.
CoffeewasintroducedbytheOttomanstotheWesternworldwhentheTurksmadeaforayintocentralEuropeinthe16thcentury.Itsactivealkaloid,caffeine,isoftenontheforbiddenlistforpatientssufferingfromrapidheartbeatorangina.Someofthechemicalsthatflavorcoffee,suchasestersofcaffeicacid,stimulatecardiachormonesandthusaddtothedangerofdisturbingtherhythmoftheheartbeat.
Apesandhumans
arebelievedtohavetakentheirseparateevolutionarywayssome5-10millionyearsago.Inthosetimes,prehumans,almosthumans,andlater,nomadicgroupsofobviouslyhumanindividualsroamedthelandscapeinsearchoffoodandshelter.
Thedrivingforcesbehindthisforagingbehaviorweretheneedtodefendthemselvesagainsttheenvironmentandtheneedtoreproducetheirspecies.Theearliesthumanswereoftenthreatenedbymalnutritionorevenstarvation;
bypredators-bothanimalandcompetingorcannibalistichumanhunters;
andbyparasitesanddegenerativediseases.
Thekindlingandtamingoffirefurtherseparatedhumansfromanimals.Firegaveprimitivenomadssomeprotectionfromcoldandawaytomakefoodmorepalatable.
Theearliestrecordsoftheirshortanddeprivedyears,estimatedasnomorethanacoupleofdecades,arewallpaintingsandcarvingsonrocksthathaveenduredforthousandsofyearsinjunglesordeserts.
Thepicturesgiveuslittleinsightintoanyhealingartsthoseforebearsmayhaveinvented.Probablyaccidentaldiscoveryofthehealingpowersofroots,barks,leaves,andberriesandofnutritionalsourcesofproteinsandstarchoccurredevenduringthoseearlieststages.
PlantingSeeds
Onlyrecently,10,000-20,000yearsago,nomadictribesbegantosettledowninsomepartsoftheworldandformedsmallagriculturalcommunities.Thisdevelopmentwasoneofthemostprofoundchangesinthehistoryofthehumanrace.
Plantingseeds,domesticatinganimals,anderectingpermanentsheltersforhumansandanimalsimprovednutrition,providedmorecomfortable,thoughstillprimitive,livingaccommodations,andstartedthesocietalbondsthatdevelopedintovillages,towns,andcities,wherethefirsttrulyhistoricaltimesbegan.
Atthisstage,whenpeoplebegantoliveclosetogether,certainruleswereestablishedtobringneededorderoutofunstructuredconglomeratedliving.Strongindividualsemergedastheleadersoftribalorvillagecommunities.
Ambitiousleadersincreasedtheirpowerbyshroudingtheirpersonalitiesanddecisionsinmystery,elevatingthemtoanexaltedreputation.
Thusemergedtheconceptofsuperhumanbeings,ofgodswithpowersovernaturalphenomenasuchasfertility,familybonds,lightning,andtheawesomepowerofstorms.
Whenthedemandsofmultipledeitiesforsacrificesgrewexcessive,allthesepowersandsupernaturalbeliefsandsuperstitionswereunitedinmonotheisticreligions,oftenaftercatastrophicwarsandthroughalongingforpeace.
Thedeitieswererepresentedritualisticallybypriestsandpriestesses,andvaluablesacrificesofferedbythepeoplefurtherenhancedthesplendorandpoweroftheseleadingpersonalities.
Authority
Partoftheinfluenceofthesecommandingindividualscamefromthepersonalhelptheycouldgivetosick,wounded,andotherwiseafflictedmembersoftheirgroups.Themedicineman,witchdoctor,orshamanwasthefirstpersontoturntoindistress.
Sometimesauthoritylayinaninfluentialwomanwhofunctionedaspriestess,nurse,andmidwife.Inmostcases,power,enforcedbysuperstition,centeredinadominantmalerecognizedashealer,priest,judge,andleaderinpeaceandwar.Aknowledgeofhealingherbsformedpartofhispowerbaseandprerogative;
amonghisdutieswasapplyingsuchhealingproductswhenneeded.
Botanicalspecimenstakenfromtrees,shrubs,andotherplantsformedthemainstayofmostoftheseearlymedicines.Sometimestheshamandeepenedthemysteryofthepowerofhismedicationbyaddingpartsofanimals,andevenhumanhearts.
Somemind-induced
(psychosomatic)illnesseswereprobablyimprovedbysuggestions,justastheyaretoday.Also,somefunctionaldisordersrespondedtotheactivechemicalsinsuitablychosenplants.Itmusthavebeenhardforamedicinemantodecidewhichplanttogiveapatient.Trialanderrorwastheorderoftheday.
Evenafterahealingeffectwasfoundinacertainplant,itwasprobablyusedforavarietyofillnesses,whetheridenticalinsymptomsoronlyvaguelysimilar.Modernphysiciansstillfacecomplicatedchoicesindiagnosisanddrugtherapyinspiteofhelpfromanalyticaltests,X-rays,ultrasound,nuclearmagneticresonancevisualization,bloodcellcounts,urinalysis,andotherlaboratoryaids.
Wecanonlyimaginethedilemmaofanancientmedicineman,whowasguidedonlybyvaguesymptomssuchasageneralizedpain,nausea,fever,orconvulsions.
Insuchadilemma,andwithoutanyknowledgeofanatomyorpathology,someherbalconcoctionwasgiveninthehopethatitwouldwork.Themedicinemanundoubtedlyaddedprayersorexorcismstothemedicationandbelievedsincerelythathisministrationswouldaidtheafflicted.
Cynicalhealersalsoappeared.InRomantimes,predictionsaboutworldaffairsaswellasthecourseofapatient'
sdiseasewerebasedontheinspectionoftheintestinesofnewlyslaughteredchickens.Therewasasayingthatdescribedoneofthesehealer-seers(calledaharuspex)encounteringanothermemberoftheguild:
Haruspex,haruspicemvidensridet("
Whenoneharuspexseesanother,helaughs"
).
EarlyRecordsOfNaturalDrugs
Fortunately,somemedicinemenandwomenwerecarefulobservers,whohadapatient'
srecoveryuppermostinmind.Especiallythosewhohadrisentopowerandinfluenceandhadascientificbentordeepcompassioncouldbereliedupontosearchforvalidexplanationsoftheirfindings.
ChinaAndTheChinese
OneoftheoldestrecordsofsuchmedicinalrecommendationsisfoundinthewritingsoftheChinesescholar-emperorShenNung,wholivedin2735B.C.,or4730B.P.(beforethepresent).Hecompiledabookaboutherbs,aforerunnerofthemedievalpharmacopoeiasthatlistedallthethen-knownmedications.
HewasabletojudgethevalueofsomeChineseherbs.Forexample,hefoundthatCh'
angShanwashelpfulintreatingfevers.Suchfeverswere,andstillare,causedbymalariaparasites.
Thedrugconsistsofthepowderedrootsofaplantinthebreakstonefamily(Saxifragaceae,nowidentifiedasDichroafebrifuga,Lour.).Almost4700yearslater,agroupofChinesechemistsisolatedtwocompounds(thedichroines)fromtheplants,oneofwhichlaterprovedtocontrolbirdmalaria.
Theleavesofthisplant-calledShunChiorchuineinpresent-dayChina-alsocontainantimalarialchemicals(thefebrifugines),oneofwhichisidenticalwithoneofthedichroines.Thesealkaloids(organicbases)werestudiedandsynthesizedduringWorldWarIIinanefforttoprotectAmericansfrommalariainthePacificandothertropicalcampaigns.
However,chemistscouldnotseparatethenauseathedrugsproducedfromtheirantimalarialeffects.
TheemperorShenNungalsoobservedthestimulatingeffectofanotherancientChinesemedicinalplant,MaHuang.Thisone,nowcalledEphedrasinica,containsanumberofalkaloids,chiefofwhich,ephedrine,wasisolatedbytheJapanesechemistNagaiin1887,morethan4600yearsaftertheeffectoftheplanthadbeenrecorded.
Ephedrineandsomecloselyrelatedcompoundsareresponsiblefortheabilityofthewiryplanttostimulatebloodpressureandbreathing.Thedrugalso
- 配套讲稿:
如PPT文件的首页显示word图标,表示该PPT已包含配套word讲稿。双击word图标可打开word文档。
- 特殊限制:
部分文档作品中含有的国旗、国徽等图片,仅作为作品整体效果示例展示,禁止商用。设计者仅对作品中独创性部分享有著作权。
- 关 键 词:
- Brief History Of Drugs药物简史 Drugs 药物 简史
![提示](https://static.bdocx.com/images/bang_tan.gif)