语言学整理Word下载.docx
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语言学整理Word下载.docx
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Thespeakersuselanguagetotalkabouttheirthoughts,ideas,beliefsorwhattheybelieve,theysee,theyhear.
2)Interpersonalfunction:
peopleuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinsociety.
3)Performative:
Languageisusedto“dothings”,toperformactions.
4)Emotivefunction:
Itiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.
5)Phaticcommunion:
Thespeakerwilluseseeminglymeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.
6)Recreationalfunction:
Thelanguageisusedforthesheerjoy.
7)Metalingualfunction:
Languagecanbeusedtotalkaboutlanguage.Languageisself-reflexive.
Whatislinguistics?
•Itisthescientificstudyoflanguage.
Mainbranchesoflinguistics
1)Phonetics----speechsounds
•Itstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatis,howthespeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,etc.
2)Phonology---phoneme:
Itstudiestherulesgoverningofthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Simplyputit,itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.
3)Morphology---morpheme:
Itisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning---morphemesandword-formationprocess.
4)Syntax:
Itstudiestherulesintheformation,organizationofasentence.Orspecifically,itstudiesthewordorderofasentence.
5)Semantics:
Itconcernsthestudyofmeaninginalanguage.
6)Pragmatics:
Itisthestudyofmeaninginacontext,inaparticularsituation.
Psycholinguistics:
Itinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind.
Sociolinguistics:
Itconcernstherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.
.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics
Descriptivevs.prescriptive
•Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Descriptivelinguisticsdescribesandanalyzesthefactsobserved.
Prescriptivelinguisticstriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior.
SynchronicandDiachronic
•Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.Thatis,ifwestudylanguageatsomepointintime,itissynchronicstudy.
•Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Thatis,ifwestudylanguageasitexistsindifferenthistoricalperiods,itisdiachronicstudy
Langueandparole
•Langueistheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,includingrules,conventions;
Itisstableandsystemic.
•Paroleistheconcreteuseofrules.Paroleissubjectto
Competenceandperformance
•Competencereferstothelanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.
•Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.
UNIT2
Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.
Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages
InternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)
Consonantsareproducedwithsomeformofobstructionoftheairpassage,withorwithoutthevibrationofthevocalcords.
Vowelisproducedwithoutanyobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth,sothat‘airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.voiced
Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished
Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.
Coarticulation:
akindofphoneticprocessinwhichsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved..Coarticulationcanbefurtherdividedintoanticipatorycoarticulationandperseverativecoarticulation.
1.Distinctionbetweenconsonantsandvowels:
obstructionofairstream
2.Howtodescribeaconsonant?
1)Stateofvocalcords2)Placeofarticulation3)
Mannerofarticulation
Exercise:
Voicelessvelarstop:
[v]:
3.Howtodescribeavowel?
⏹theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);
⏹thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);
⏹thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),and
⏹lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).
Lowfrontlaxunroundedvowel:
[æ
]Highbacklaxroundedvowel:
[u]
[Λ]:
Midbacklaxunroundedvowel
4.Phone,phoneme,allophone?
⏹Phone--individualsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.(realizationofphoneme)E.g.[l,i:
k,i,s,t,th]
⏹Phoneme--Thesmallestsoundunitinalanguagethatdistinguishesmeaning.(abstract)E.g./p/,/b/
⏹Allophone--variantsofthephonemee.g.[p,ph]aretwoallophonesof/p/
Whatisminimalpair?
⏹twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplace.
Threerequirements:
1)Samenumberofsoundsegments;
2)Onephoneticdifferenceinthesameplace;
3)Differentmeaning
⏹Notice:
establishedonthebasisofsoundnotspelling
5.Phonologicalprocess:
NasalizationDentalizationVelarizationDevoicingEpenthesis
⏹Loveto[lΛftə]---devoicingBridges[bridʒəz]---epenthesis
Youcan[ŋ]gonow.---velarizationcan[kǽn]---nasalization
UNIT3
WordIdentification
Stability:
thereislittlepotentialrearrangementofitsinternalstructure/constituentparts.
(However,rearrangementispossibleforasentence)
Relativeuninterruptibility:
newelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.
(However,anewelementcanbeinsertedinasentence)
Aminimumfreeform:
asmallestmeaningfulunitwhichcanbeusedindependently.
Wordclassification
A.Variable&
Invariable
Ø
Variable:
wordswithorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms.Partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.
Invariable:
wordswithoutinflectiveendings
B.Grammatical&
Lexical
Grammatical/Functionwords:
wordswhichexpressgrammaticalmeaning.
Lexical/Contentwords:
wordswhichhavelexicalmeaning,orwhichcarrythemaincontentofalanguage
C.Closed-class&
open-class
Closed-class:
whosemembershipisfixedorlimited,i.e.,newmemberscannotnormallybeadded
Open-class:
whosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,i.e.,newmemberscanbeadded
Morphemeisthesmallestunitofformthathassemanticorgrammaticalmeaning.
Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes
Freemorphemecanstandbyitselfasasingleword.
Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes
Boundmorphemedoesnotoccuralone.Itappearswithatleastoneotherform.
AllaffixesinEnglishareboundmorphemes
Lexicalchangeproper:
1)Invention/Coinage发明法2)Blending混成法3)Back-formation逆构词法4)Clipping/Abbreviations缩写词5)Acronym缩略语6)Analogicalcreation类推构词7)Borrowing借词
UNIT4
Syntacticrelations:
Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage
PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.
TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure
ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev.Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations
ImmediateConstituent(IC)Analysis:
Thetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintosmallerunitsbymakingsuccessivebinarycutting
Itrevealsthehierarchicalrelations,aswellassequentialrelations,amongwordsorgroupsofwordsinasentence.
EndocentricandExocentricConstructions
⏹Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.
⏹Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup
UNIT5
(1)Conceptualmeaning
⏹Alsocalled‘denotative’,‘referential’orcognitive’meaning
⏹Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.
⏹Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.
(2)Associativemeaning---anumbrellaterm.Itisbasedontheassociationisttheoryofpsychology.Itreferstomentalconnectionsthatarisewhenreferentialmeaningcomestomind.
Relationshipsb/tSenseandreference
Sense:
theliteralmeaningofawordoranexpression,independentofsituationalcontext.
Reference:
theuseof
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