会话原则下的文化因素Word文档格式.docx

会话原则下的文化因素Word文档格式.docx

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culturaldifference;

conversationalprinciples;

CooperativePrinciple;

PolitenessPrinciple

　　Fewareasofpeople’sexperienceareclosertothemormorecontinuouslywiththemthantheirlanguage—theyhavetocommunicatebyspeaking,listening,readingandwritingineverydaylife.Inthecourseofcommunication,itisnodoubtthatspeechenjoysprioritynotonlybecauseitprecedeswritingintermsofevolution,butalargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinconversationaswell.Anidealconversationisusuallyassumedtobecarriedoutby“turn-taking”andthusthemeaningsoftheutteranceareexpressedaccordingly.However,therealintentionsofthespeakerscannotalwaysbedrawnbysimplyinterpretingthesurfacemeaningsofthewordsintheutterance,forpeopleoftentendtomeanmoreinaroundaboutwaythanwhattheyactuallysay.Let’sfirstlookatanexamplewhichtookplaceonthecampusatnoon:

　　Devin:

Whattimeisit?

　　Jakie:

Thestudentsaregoingtothedininghall.

　　Here,Jakie’sanswerdoesn’tseemtomakesenseonthefaceofit,butitisstillanadequateanswerforDevin,becausetheparticularcontextsofthisconversationincludethefactthatthestudentsusuallyhavelunchatabout11:

30intheuniversityandDevinisawareofthis.ItispossibleforDevintoworkoutthetimebyinterpretingorguessingwhatJakiesaysandthemoresheknowsaboutthecontext,themorequalifiedherguessworkisgoingtobe.

　　Normallyinconversationalinteraction,peopleworkontheassumptionthatacertainsetofrulesisinoperation,unlesstheyreceiveindicationstothecontrary.Forexample,ifJakiegivesthesameanswertoastranger,it’lllikelyleadtocommunicationbreakdownbecausenobodyexpectsasuccessfulconversationinwhichpeopletrytoconfuse,trick,orwithholdrelevantinformationfromeachother.Inotherwords,asuccessfulconversationshouldbethefruitofalltheparticipants’effortsandcollaborationisanecessaryfactorforthemtoachieveacertaingoal.Therefore,peopleareexpectedtobecooperateduringaconversation,andsuchcooperativemechanismshaveverylittletodowithlogicandsemantics,butaregroundedinsomepragmaticprinciples,especiallytheCooperativePrinciple.

　　In1967,AmericanphilosopherGriceputforwardtheCooperativePrincipleinLogicandConversation:

“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged”（Yule,37）.Supportingthisprincipleisthefourmaxims:

QuantityMaxim:

Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired,butnotmore,orless,thanisrequired.QualityMaxim:

Donotsaythatwhichyoubelievetobefalseorforwhichyoulackevidence.RelationMaxim:

Berelevant.MannerMaxim:

Beclear,briefandorderly.

　　Theimportanceofthisprincipleliesintwoaspects:

Firstly,itisthefirsttimetosystematicallyinducepeople’sconversationalactivitiesintolaw.Secondly,whenviolationoftheCooperativePrincipletakesplace,inonecase,understandingofthediscourseishinderedandthespeakershouldmakeremediesimmediatelytosmooththeconversation;

inanothercase,ifthespeakerdoessointentionally,therewillbemoretoitthanwhatissaid.Conversationalimplicatures,inthisway,willbegivenriseto.

　　1．ViolationoftheQuantityMaxim

　　知之为知之，不知为不知。

　　Inthissentence,repetitionofthesamewordappearstwice,whichaccordswiththeformula“P=P”.Fromapurelylogicalperspective,thesentencehasnocommunicativevaluesinceitexpressessomethingcompletelyobvious,butitcanbeunderstoodeasilythatthissentenceprimarilyadvisespeopletobehonestinengaginginscholarship.Similarapparentlypointlessexpressionsare“Businessisbusiness”and“Girlsaregirls”.Thiskindofphenomenoniscalledtautology.Whentautologyisappliedinaconversation,itisclearthatthespeakerintendstoexpressmorethanissaid.Usually,thiskindofusagehasstrongsenseofemotion.

　　Polonius:

Whatdoyouread,mylord?

　　Hamlet:

Words,words,words.（Shakespeare,Hamlet）

　　“我们是睡在鼓里，等人家来杀！

等人家来杀！

”（矛盾：

《子夜》）

　　FromPolonius’perspective,Hamlet’sanswerprovideslessinformationthanexpected.For“words”beingtheobjectof“read”seemstobetoogeneralandPoloniusstilldidnotknowwhatHamletread.Infact,repetitionoftheword“words”showsHamlet’sstrongimpatiencethathewasunwillingtotalktoPolonius.Inanotherpointofview,fromthefactthatPolonius’sattitudeiswarmandcooperativewhileHamlet’sattitudeisimpatientandindifferent,theremustbesomeimplications.Similarlyinexample3,repetitionofasentenceshowsthespeaker’sstrongindignation.

　　2．ViolationoftheQualityMaxim

　　南唐时，赋税繁重，京城地区又遭旱灾，人民叫苦连天。

一天，烈祖在北苑饮宴，对群臣说：

“外地都下雨了，只是都城却不下雨，怎么回事呢？

”申渐应到：

“雨不感入城，是怕抽税而已。

”烈祖大笑，马上下令除掉重税。

　　ViolationoftheQualityMaximhastwocases,onecaseisakindof“moraloffence”,whichmeansthatthespeakerisunwillingtoobservetheQualitymaximandislying.Theothercaseisakindof“falselie”,whichmeansthatthespeakerisunwillingtocooperativeandistryingtoexpressimplicitmeaning.Inthisexample,ShenJiancleverlyusedpersonificationthateventherainisscaredofthetaxbecausethemanhetalkedtowasthekingofthedynasty.JustthinkoftheimpossibilityofabolishingtheheavytaxationifShenJianusedbluntwordstoremonstrate!

　　Tommy:

Mother!

Thelorrygoingbyisasbigasamountain!

　　Mother:

Why,dear,I’vetoldyouovertenthousandtimesnottoexaggeratethingssoterriblyandyourbadhabitremainsunchanged.

　　Itisbelievedthatthereisnosuchalorryasbigasamountainonearthanditisalsobelievedthatthemothercouldnothavetoldhersoonovertenthousandtimes.Hyperbole,justlikeirony,metaphorandmeiosisarealltheresultsthatviolatetheQualitymaxim.Ofcourse,ifthemotherherselfhadnotexaggerated,thestorywouldnotbesofunny.

　　3．ViolationoftheRelationmaxim

　　周冲：

爸，我听说矿上对于这次受伤的工人不给一点抚恤金。

　　周朴园：

我认为你这次话说得太多了。

　　ZhouPuyuandidnotprovideanyinformationaboutwhatZhouChongwasinterestedin.Onthecontrary,heusedaperformativeutterance:

ToletZhouChongshutup.ViolationoftheRelationmaxim,infact,isusedtopreventZhouChongtalkingaboutmattersconcerningtheaccidentintheminesandinjuriesoftheworkers.

　　Anotherexamplecomesfromatruestoryofthewriter.Onedaysheaskedoneofherstudentstoreadthetextinclass.Owingtolackofconcentration,thestudentmisreadanothertext,sothewritersaid,“你的书是那个版本的?

”insteadofdirectcriticizing.Alltheclasshadagoodlaugh,includingtheboyhimself,buteveryoneunderstoodherintentionofirony.

　　4．ViolationoftheMannermaxim

　　“一个人死了之后，究竟有没有魂灵？

”

　　“也许有罢，我想。

”我于是吞吞吐吐地说。

　　“那么，也就有地狱了？

　　“啊！

地狱？

”我很吃惊，只得支吾着，“地狱？

论理，就该也有。

然而也未必……谁来管这等事……”（《祝福》）

　　Toviolatethemannermaximmeansthatthespeakerspeaksobscurelyandambiguouslyinsteadofspeakingbrieflyandorderly.LuXunisagreatmasteroflanguage,soheusedmildandindirectwordsinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectwordsinordernottobringmentalagonytoher.Also,pun,whichis“aformofspeechplayinwhichawordorphraseunexpectedlyandsimultaneouslycombinestwounrelatedmeanings”（Huang,139）,isoftenusedtoproduceconversationalimplicature.

　　Mrs.Jones:

We’regoingtobeneighborsnow.We’vebroughtahomenexttoyou,rightontheedgeofthelake.

　　Mrs.Brown:

Soglad!

Hopeyou’lldropinsometimes.

　　Ifinallyfiguredouthowgovernmentworks.ThesenategetsthebillfromtheHouse,thePresidentgetsthebillfromtheSenate,andwegetthebillforeverything.

　　Thekeywordinexample2is“drop”,whichbearsthemeaning“fall”andleavesspacetothereaderstoimagineifMrs.Jonesfellintothelake.IfMrs.Brownchangedtheambiguous“drop”into“visit”,nohumorwillbeproduced.Inexample3,thefirstandthesecond“bill”srefertothedraftofaproposedlaw,whilethethirdonereferstoawrittenstatementofmoneyowned.Theauthorsatiricallyexposesthecorruptionoftheofficials,whilethecommonpeoplehavetobeartheburden.

　　SincepeopleshouldfollowtheCooperativePrincipleinconversation,thenwhydotheyviolateit?

Whydonottheystatetheirviewsfrankly,butlettheirlistenersrecognizethecommunicatedmeaningsviainference?

G.LeechhasproposedthePolitenessPrincipletorescuetheCooperativePrinciple.Inhispointofview,thereasonwhypeopleviolatetheCooperativePrincipleisoutoftheconside