The Lighthouse in EconomicsWord文档下载推荐.docx
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The Lighthouse in EconomicsWord文档下载推荐.docx
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.Introduction
Thelighthouseappearsinthewritingsofeconomistsbecauseofthelightitissupposedtothrowonthequestionoftheeconomicfunctionsofgovernment.Itisoftenusedasanexampleofsomethingwhichhastobeprovidedbygovernmentratherthanbyprivateenterprise.Whateconomistsusuallyseemtohaveinmindisthattheimpossibilityofsecuringpaymentfromtheownersoftheshipsthatbenefitfromtheexistenceofthelighthousemakesitunprofitableforanyprivateindividualorfirmtobuildandmaintainalighthouse.
JohnStuartMillinhisPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy,inthechapter“OftheGroundsandLimitsoftheLaissez-FaireorNon-InterferencePrinciple,”said:
…itisaproperofficeofgovernmenttobuildandmaintainlighthouses,establishbuoys,etc.forthesecurityofnavigation:
forsinceitisimpossiblethattheshipsatseawhicharebenefitedbyalighthouse,shouldbemadetopayatollontheoccasionofitsuse,noonewouldbuildlighthousesfrompersonalinterest,unlessindemnifiedandrewardedfromacompulsorylevymadebythestate.
HenrySidgwickinhisPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy,inthechapter,“TheSystemofNaturalLibertyConsideredinRelationtoProduction,”hadthistosay:
…thereisalargeandvariedclassofcasesinwhichthesupposition[thatasindividualcanalwaysobtainthroughfreeexchangeadequateremunerationfortheservicesherenders]wouldbemanifestlyerroneous.Inthefirstplacetherearesomeutilitieswhich,fromtheirnature,arepracticallyincapableofbeingappropriatedbythosewhoproducethemorwouldotherwisebewillingtopurchasethem.Forinstance,itmayeasilyhappenthatthebenefitsofawell-placedlighthousemustbelargelyenjoyedbyshipsonwhichnotollcouldbeconvenientlyimposed.
PigouintheEconomicsofWelfareusedSidgwick’slighthouseexampleasaninstanceofuncompensatedservices,inwhich“marginalnetproductfallsshortofmarginalsocialnetproduct,becauseincidentalservicesareperformedtothirdpartiesfromwhomitistechnicallydifficulttoexactpayment.”
PaulA,Samuelson,inhisEconomics,ismoreforthrightthantheseearlierwriters.Inthesectiononthe“EconomicRoleofGovernment,”hesaysthat“governmentprovidescertainindispensablepublicserviceswithoutwhichcommunitylifewouldbeunthinkableandwhichbytheirnaturecannotappropriatelybelefttoprivateenterprise.”Hegivesas“obviousexamples,”themaintenanceofnationaldefense,ofinternallawandorder,andtheadministrationofjusticeandofcontractsandheaddsinafootnote:
…hereisalaterexampleofgovernmentservice:
lighthouses.Thesesavelivesandcargoes;
butlighthousekeeperscannotreachouttocollectfeesfromskippers.“So,”saystheadvancedtreatise,“wehavehereadivergencebetweenprivateadvantageandmoneycost[asseenbyamanoddenoughtotrytomakehisfortunerunningalighthousebusiness]andtruesocialadvantageandcost[asmeasuredbylivesandcargoessavedincomparisonwith
(1)totalcostsofthelighthouseand
(2)extracoststhatresultfromlettingonemoreshiplookatthewarninglight].”Philosophersandstatesmenhavealwaysrecognizedthenecessaryroleofgovernmentinsuchcasesof“external-economydivergencebetweenprivateandsocialadvantage.”
LaterSamuelsonagainreferstothelighthouseasa“governmentactivityjustifiablebecauseofexternaleffects.”Hesays:
Takeourearliercaseofalighthousetowarnagainstrocks.Itsbeamhelpseveryoneinsight.Abusinessmancouldnotbuilditforaprofit,sincehecannotclaimapricefromeachuser.Thiscertainlyisthekindofactivitythatgovernmentswouldnaturallyundertake.
Samuelsondoesnotleavethematterhere.Healsousesthelighthousetomakeanotherpoint(onenotfoundintheearlierwriters).Hesays:
…inthelighthouseexampleonethingshouldbenoticed:
“Thefactthatthelighthouseoperatorscannotappropriateintheformofapurchasepriceafeefromthoseitbenefitscertainlyhelpstomakeitasuitablesocialorpublicgood.Buteveniftheoperatorswereable—say,byradarreconnaissance—toclaimatollfromeverynearbyuser,thatfactwouldnotnecessarilymakeitsociallyoptimalforthisservicetobeprovidedlikeaprivategoodatamarket-determinedindividualprice.Whynot?
Becauseitcostssocietyseroextracosttoletoneextrashipusetheservice;
henceanyshopsdiscouragedfromthosewatersbytherequirementtopayapositivepricewillrepresentasocialeconomicsloss—evenifthepricechargedtoallisnomorethanenoughtopaythelong-runexpensesofthelighthouse.Ifthelighthouseissociallyworthbuildingandoperating—anditneednotbe—amoreadvancedtreatisecanshowhowthissocialgoodisworthbeingmadeoptimallyavailabletoall.
ThereisanelementofparadoxinSamuelson’sposition.Thegovernmentgastoprovidelighthousesbecauseprivatefirmscouldnotchargefortheirservices.Butifitwerepossibleforprivatefirmstomalesuchachargetheyshouldnotbeallowedtodoso(whichalsopresumablycallsforgovernmentaction).Samuelson’spositionusquitedifferentfromthatofMill,SidgwickorPigou.AsIreadthesewriters,thedifficultyofchargingfortheuseofalighthouseisaseriouspointwithimportantconsequencesforlighthousepolicy.Theyhadnoobjectiontochargingassuchandtherefore,ifthiswerepossible,totheprivateoperationoflighthouses.Mill’sargumentisnot,however,freefromambiguity.Hearguesthatthegovernmentshouldbuildandmaintainlighthousesbecause,sinceshipsbenefittedcannotbemadetopayatoll,privateenterprisewouldnotprovidealighthouseservice.Buthethenaddsaqualifyingphrase“unlessindemnifiedandrewardedfromacompulsorylevymadebythestate.”Itakea“compulsorylevy”tobeoneimposedonshipsbenefitedbythelighthouse(thelevywouldbe,ineffect,atoll).TheelementofambiguityinMill’sexpositioniswhetherhemeantthatthe“compulsorylevy”wouldmakeitpossibleforpeopleto“buildlighthousesfrommotivesofpersonalinterest”andthereforeforgovernmentoperationtobeavoidedorwhetherhemeantthatitwasnotpossible(ordesirable)forprivatefirmstobe“indemnifiedandrewardedfromacompulsorylevy”andthatthereforegovernmentoperationwasrequired.MyownopinionisthatMillhadinmindthefirstofthesealternativeinterpretationsand,ifthisisright,itrepresentsanimportantqualificationtohisviewthatbuildingandmaintaininglighthousesis“aproperofficeofthegovernment.”Inanycase,itseemsclearthatMillhadnoobjectioninprincipletotheimpositionoftolls.Sidgwick’spoint(towhichPigourefers)raisesnoproblemsofinterpretation.Itis,however,veryrestrictedincharacter.Hesaysthat“itmayeasilyhappenthatthebenefitsofawell-placedlighthousemustbelargelyenjoyedbyshipsonwhichnotollcouldbeconvenientlyimposed.”Thisdoesnotsaythatchargingisimpossible:
indeed,itimpliesthecontrary.Whatitsaysisthattheremaybecircumstancesinwhichmostofthosewhobenefitfromthelighthousecanavoidpayingthetoll.Itdoesnotsaythattheremaynotbecircumstancesinwhichthebenefitsofthelighthousearelargelyenjoyedbyshipsonwhichatollcouldbeconvenientlylaidanditimpliesthat,inthesecircumstances,itwouldbedesirabletoimposeatoll—whichwouldmakeprivateoperationoflighthousespossible.
Itis,Ithink,difficulttounderstandexactlywhatMill,SidgwickandPigoumeantwithoutsomeknowledgeoftheBritishlighthousesystemsince,althoughthesewriterswereprobablyunfamiliarwithhowtheBritishsystemoperatedindetail,theyweredoubtlessawareofitsgeneralcharacterandthismusthavebeeninthebackoftheirmindswhenheywroteaboutlighthouses.However,knowledgeoftheBritishlighthousesystemnotonlyenablesonetohaveagreaterunderstandingofMill,SidgwickandPigou;
italsoprovidesacontextwithinwhichtoappraiseSamulson’sstatementsaboutlighthouses.
.TheBritishLighthouseSystem
TheauthoritiesinBritainwhichbuildandmaintainlighthousesareTrinityHouse(forEnglandandWales),theCommissionersofNorthernLighthouses(forScotland)andtheCommissionersofIrishLights(forIreland).TheexpensesoftheseauthoritiesaremetoutoftheGeneralLighthouseFund.TheincomeofthisFundisderivedfromlightdues,whicharepaidbyship-owners.TheresponsibilityformakingthearrangementsforthepaymentofthelightduesandformaintainingtheaccountsisplacedonTrinityHouse(whetherthepaymentsaremadeinEngland,Wales,ScotlandorIreland)althoughtheactualcollectionismadebythecustomsauthoritiesattheports.ThemoneyobtainedfromthelightduesispaidintotheGeneralLighthouseFund,whichisunderthecontroloftheDepartmentofTrade.ThelighthouseauthoritiesdrawontheGeneralLighthouseFundtomeettheirexpenditures.
TherelationoftheDepartmentofTradetothevariouslighthouseauthoritiesissomewhatsimilartothatoftheTreasurytoaBritishGovernmentDepartment.ThebudgetsoftheauthoritieshavetobeapprovedbytheDepartment.TheproposedbudgetsofthethreeauthoritiesaresubmittedaboutChristmastimeandarediscussedataLighthouseConferenceheldannuallyinLondon.InadditiontothethreelighthouseauthoritiesandtheDepartment,therearealsopresentattheconferencemembersoftheLightAdvisoryCommittee,acommitteeoftheChamberofShipping(atradeassociation)representingship-owners,underwritersandshippers.TheLightsAdvisoryCommittee,althoughwithoutstatutoryauthority,playsanimportantpartinthereviewprocedureand
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