留学文书翻译留学材料翻译Word格式文档下载.docx
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留学文书翻译留学材料翻译Word格式文档下载.docx
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来自俄克拉荷马城的访谈
ToryJ.Caeti,JohnLiederbach和StevenS.
摘要
危机事件,包括自然灾害、有害物质泄漏、劫持人质以及恐怖分子袭击时期的警务工作成为911之后特别重要的话题。
鉴于这些事件特别引人注目,警方人员往往需要在这些事件时跟媒体建立并保持联系,特别是记者和他们的工作人员,而这些人的目标跟执法人员相冲突。
本文使用俄克拉荷马城爆炸案以及提摩太和泰瑞·
尼克尔斯相关试验的访谈数据,研究了跟危机事件期间警察-媒体关系有关的问题。
这些访谈提出了警察工作的重要原则,在危机事件时,他们必须跟媒体建立成功的关系。
介绍
警方和媒体在重大事件中的冲突已经变得非常普遍-执法人员处尽力保护证据,帮助受害者,跟证人谈话,而现场记者和摄像人员采访当地、州或联邦官员。
这些事件越血腥或让人激动,媒体就越有兴趣。
纽约市的911袭击跟华盛顿狙击手枪击事件等最近许多的危机事件表明,这些冲突非常的麻烦。
危急事件可能包括自然灾害、人质事件、自杀、凶杀案、有害物质泄漏和恐怖袭击。
对于执法人员和行政人员,控制这些危机事件变得更加重要。
由于这些引人注目紧急事件独特的性质,危机事件为研究警察-媒体关系的影响提高了很好的条件。
本文使用一个特别可怕的危机事件-1995年俄克拉荷马城摩拉联邦大厦爆炸的访谈记录,进行危机事件时期警察-媒体关系的案例研究。
我们提供了当地警方和联邦特工(这些人在爆炸之后马上到了现场)以及提摩太和泰瑞·
尼克尔斯的的访谈记录。
此外,其中一个作者都在这两个事件的现场,且负责安全工作。
这些访谈使我们能够研究俄克拉荷马城媒体和警务人员之间的沟通过程,并了解媒体压力如何影响警察的决策。
最后,访谈给希望改善警察-媒体关系的执法人员提供了有用的信息。
俄克拉荷马城和警察-媒体关系的历史背景
对许多人来说,美国公众对1995年4月媒体的集体良知印象仍然存在。
摩拉联邦大厦的镂空框架默默地站在烟雾和碎片中。
救援人员来求助受伤流血的儿童。
目击者看到这个景象都震惊了。
这个爆炸案是美国本土最严重的恐怖袭击,大量燃料油和和卡车炸弹的爆炸使钢筋扭曲,使混凝土粉碎,不仅造成168人死亡,也深刻改变了美国公众的安全意识。
人们对恐怖的画面仍然记忆犹新,同时媒体在事件后的大量跟踪报道同样给人深刻印象。
成群的当地和全国新闻记者像警察和救援人员一样快速到达现场,到处是闪光灯和相机,他们希望迅速报道新闻并从政府机构获得信息。
搜救工作、爆炸嫌犯的调查和最终审判也伴随着媒体的广泛报导。
俄克拉荷马城爆炸之后,警察面临安全方面的问题,而大量媒体快速到达现场,双方面临着冲突,执法人员跟媒体在重大事件之后长期以来有这样的问题。
嘉纳(1984)把双方的关系形容为“基本不信任,甚至相互讨厌”的关系。
同样地,调查研究表面,媒体行业人员跟官员在犯罪新闻报道方面存在重大且明显的分歧。
(Altschull,1975;
Selke&
Bartoszek,1984)。
Thesepointsofconflictarenotnew,butratherappeartoemanatefromlongstandingconstitutional,occupational,andhistoricalfactorsthathaveservedtoper¬
petuatestrugglesbetweenpoliceandmembersofthemediaovertime.First,disagreementsbetweenthetwogroupsaredeeplyembeddedintherighttofreespeechoutlinedintheFirstAmendmenttotheUSConstitution.Inpart,theFirstAmendmentprotectsanindividual’srighttofreedomofexpression,includingreligiousfreedoms,rightstoassociation,andfreedomsofspeech.Therighttofreedomofspeechspecificallypreventsthegovernmentfrominterferingwiththefreeexpressionofideas;
however,theUSSupremeCourthaslimitedtheserightsovertimesothattherighttofreedomofexpressionisnotabsolute.Forexample,speechthathasbeendeemedaslibellous,obscene,orseditiousisgenerallynotprotectedundertheFirstAmendment(Peltason,1991).Asarule,thecourtshaveattemptedtobalancetheindividualrighttofreespeechwiththegovernment’s(includingthepolice)interestinpromotingsocietalorderandmorality(Peltason).
Whiletherightsassociatedwithfreedomsofexpressiongenerallyextendtotheactionsofthepress,itisimportanttonotethattheConstitutiondoesnotaffordmembersofthemediaanyspecialrightsorprivilegesnotgrantedtoprivateindividuals.Forexample,theFirstAmendmentdoesnotgrantthemediaunabridgedaccesstoinformationortherighttointerviewmembersofthepublic(Peltason,1991).Instead,courtshavecontinuallyattemptedtobalancetherightofthepresstoaccessinformationthatitdeemsisinthe‘publicinterest’withtherightsofgovernmenttomaintainorder.Forexample,theSupremeCourthasconsistentlyupheldthemedia’srighttoaccessandreportinformationrelatingtocriminaltrials,buthasrefrainedfromprovidingthemediaanabsoluterighttotakepicturesorpubliclybroadcastsuchproceedings(seeRichmondNewspapers,Inc.vVirginia;
1GlobeNewspaperCo.vSuperiorCourt2).
Theissueofwhetherornotthemediahavearighttobroadcastpubliclyspecificinformationhasundergonespecialscrutiny.Inthisregard,thecourthasruledthat‘thereisno“unbridgeable”FirstAmendmentrighttobroadcastcomparabletotherightofeveryindividualtospeak,write,orpublish..’(RedLionBroadcastingCo.vFederalCommunicationsCommission3).Withinthiscontext,thecourthastendedtostrikedownlawsdesignedtolimitthebroadcastingofinformationpriortoitsrelease.Sotoo,thecourthasnotbeenpronetopermitthepunishmentofmembersofthemediaforpublishinginformationthatwasfoundtobetruthfuland/orlawfullyobtained(SmithvDailyMailPublishingCo.4).Constitutionalstandardsconcerningthemedia’srighttoaccessinformationandindividualscontinuetoevolveonacase-by-casebasisandhasrecentlybecomemorecomplicatedwiththeadventofnewformsofmedia(egcabletelevision,theinternet),sothattheconstitutional‘battlelines’betweenmediaandpoliceconcerningtherighttobroadcastspecificinformationmustbecontinuallyinterpreted(Peltason,1991).
InadditiontothevolatilelegalcontextassociatedwiththeFirstAmendment,conflictsbetweenthepoliceandmembersofthemediaalsoappeartobeinfluencedbydeeplyrootedoccupationalfactors.First,thereappeartobepre-existingdistinctionsinpersonalityandorientationbetweenlawenforcementpersonnelandmembersofthemedia.Forexample,SelkeandBartoszek(1984)conductedasurveytoexplorethepredispositionandgeneralorientationofpolicecadetsandjournalismstudentsregardingtheirprospectiveprofessions.Theirresultsidentifiedseveralattitudinalandperceptualdifferencesinthewaythesetwogroupsviewedthefieldsoflawenforcementandjournalism,suggestingthatalargedegreeofsuspicionandalackoftrustexistsbetweenmembersofthesetwoprofessionsevenpriortotheirformalentryintothesecareers(SelkeandBartoszek).
Thesepre-existingdifferencesseemtobereinforcedasemployeesformallyentertheirrespectivefields,withthepoliceacademyservingtosolidifynegativemediaattitudesforrookiecops(Harris,1973;
Bartoszek,1984)andjournalismorganisationsdoinglikewiseforcubreporters(Tuchman,1978;
Bartoszek).Alt-schull’s(1975)surveyofpressrepresentativesandlawenforcementpersonnelspecificallyidentifiedsomeofthesedifferences.Hefoundjournaliststobemoreideologically‘liberal’thanpolice,andmorelikelytoopposepolicecensorshipandcontroloverdisputedareasofpublication.Journalistswerealsofoundtobelieveinthevalueandcredibilityof‘unofficial’newstipsmorethanpolicerespondentsdid(Altschull).
Theexistingmutualdistrusthasalsobeenfuelledbyhistoricaleventsthathaveworkedtodeepenthedivisionbetweenpoliceandmembersofthemediaovertime.Inparticular,thesocialandpoliticalturmoilofthe1960sseemstohaveservedasacatalystintheescalationofthisundeclaredwar,.First,themediaplayedakeyroleinidentifyingandinvestigatingproblemsrelatedtopolicecorruption,abusesofpower,andevencriminalactivityonthepartofofficersduringthisperiod(Sherman,1974b).Forexample,thewidelypublicisedstoryofNewYorkCitypoliceofficerFrankSer-pico,initiallybrokenbyaNewYorkTimesreporter,standsasacontinuingsignposttopolicemisconductduringthisperiod.Indeed,themedia’sroleasthe‘creator’ofscandaldesignedasatooltoinitiatedisciplinaryactionsagainstwaywardofficersandchangesinpoliceorganisationsremainsconstanteventoday(Langworthy&
Travis,2003;
Sherman1974a).
Second,thesocialupheavalsthataroseduringthecivilrightsmovement,theVietnamWar,andtheWatergatescandalthrustpoliceintothedifficultroleofmaintainingorderinthefaceofriots.Thenewsmedia,especiallytelevision,providedthepublicwithviewsofpolicegrapplingwithprotestersinChicagoattheDemocraticnationalconvention,sprayingfirehosesondemonstratorsinBirmingham,Alabama,andattemptingtoquellriotsintheaftermathoftheshootingofDrMartinLutherKing.Clearly,theinteractionbetweensociety’sprimaryinformationsystem——themedia——andsociety’sprimarysystemforenforcingbehaviour——thepolice——hadfosteredalargedegreeofanimositybytheendofthedecadeandcreatedanatmosphereofmistrustbetweenpoliceandmediapersonnelthatremainstoday(Surrette,1998).
Morerecently,thegrowthincompetitionthathasoccurredwithinthenewsmediabusinessinthelastdecadeappearstohaveacceleratedpolice—mediaconflicts(Surrette,1998).Onceconsistingmostlyoflocally-operated,independentnewspapers,themediaindustryhasbecomeincreasinglydominatedbyvastglobalconglomeratesthatoperateawidearrayofdifferentnewsoutletsincludingnotonlyprintmedia,butalsonetworktelevision,cabletelevisionandinternetmedia.Thepaceofmediacom¬
petitionseemstohavequickenedwiththeadventof24—hourcablenewsstationsandtheirunendingneedtofillbroadcasttimewithnewsworthyfeatures.Withthisgrowthincompetition,newsagenciesfindthemselvesinastruggleagainstoneanotherforstoriesaswellascustomers.Newsoutletsviewithoneanothertobethe‘firstonthestory’inorderto‘scoop’thecompetitionandgainbothadditionalviewersandadvertisingdollars(Surrette).Inaddition,acultureofpaparazzihasdevelopedwhereallmeansnecessarytogetapictureareused,oftenattheexpenseofpersonalprivacyanddignity.
Themedia’sinsatiableappetitefornewsstandsatoddswithmuchofwhatpoliceexecutivesarechallengedtoaccomplishinsecuringcriticalincidentscenes.Itisclearlywithintheindividualofficer’slegitimaterighttoexercisehisorherauthorityinordertoprovideforthesafetyofvictimsandbystandersintheaftermathofthesecriticalincidents.Likewise,securingtheareaimmediatelysurroundingacriticalincidentscenebecomesvitaltotheapprehensionofsuspectsand/ortherestorationoforderifthecrisissituationremainsongoing(eghostagesituations,hazardousmaterialspills).Finally,policeauthoritymustbeemployedinordertoprotectanyremainingevidencethatcouldaidinsubsequentinvestigations.
Itiswithinthisvolatilecontextthatpoliceofficersfromscoresoffederal,state,andlocalagenciesconfrontedmembersofthelocalandn
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