agenda setting theoryWord格式.docx

agenda setting theoryWord格式.docx

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1History

▪1.1Foundation

▪2Causality（因果关系）:

AgendaSettingorAgendaReflection?

▪3Functions

▪4Mediaagendainthemarketplace

▪5Diffusion

▪6TheAccessibility（接近性）BiasandControversy

▪7CognitiveEffectsModel

8Characteristics/Tenets

▪8.1CharacteristicsofAgenda-settingResearch

9FramingandSecond-levelAgendasetting:

Similarities,Differences,andControversies

▪9.1Agendasettingvs.Framing

▪10Levelsofagendasetting

▪11Usage

▪12Strengthsandweaknessesoftheory

[]History

Foundation

Followingtheeraoflimitedmediaeffectparadigm（典范）,establishedbyLazarsfeldandcolleagues’ThePeople’sChoiceresearch,thedevelopmentofagendasettinghypothesissignals“therediscoveryofapowerfuleffectsmodel.”ThepowerfuleffectsmodelcanbetracedbacktoCohen（1963）’sargumentthat“themassmediamaynotbesuccessfulmuchofthetimeintellingpeoplewhattothink,butthemediastunninglysuccessfulintellingtheiraudiencewhattothinkabout.”[4]Onarelatednote,agenda-settingmodelbroughtaboutaparadigmshift:

therejectionofpersuasionasacentralorganizingparadigm.[5]Thatis,mediaisnottellingaudienceswhattothink,butwhattothinkabout.

Themediaagendaisthesetofissuesaddressedbymediasourcesandthepublicagendawhichareissuesthepublicconsiderimportant.[6]Agenda-settingtheorywasintroducedin1972byMaxwellMcCombsandDonaldShawintheirgroundbreakingstudyoftheroleofthemediain1968presidentialcampaigninChapelHill,NorthCarolina.

Theresearcherssurveyed100undecidedvotersduringthe1968presidentialelectionsonwhattheythoughtwerekeyissuesandmeasuredthatagainsttheactualmediacontent.[7]Therankingofissueswasalmostidenticalwithacorrelationof.97,andtheconclusionsmatchedtheirhypothesisthatthemassmediapositionedtheagendaforpublicopinionbyemphasizingspecifictopics.[8]Subsequentresearchonagenda-settingtheoryprovidedevidenceforthecause-and-effectchainofinfluencebeingdebatedbycriticsinthefield.

[]Causality:

Toconfirmagenda-settinghypothesis,evidenceshouldshowthatmediaagendasprecedepublicagendas.Inthisregard,Kosickiraisedapointthat“ifrealworldproblemsaredrivingbothaudienceinterestandnewscoverage,thenitisnotmeaningfultoattributethecausetomedia.”Hecontinued,therefore,sayingthat“amoremeaningfulcaseofagendasettingisoneinwhichaproblemisongoingatarelativelyconstantlevelandmediaattentioncomesandgoesinresponsetoitsowncues.”[5]

Oneparticularstudymadeleapstoproveacause-effectrelationship.ThestudywasconductedbyYaleresearchers,ShantoIyengar,MarkPeters,andDonaldKinder.Theresearchershadthreegroupsofsubjectsfilloutquestionnairesabouttheirownconcernsandtheneachgroupwatcheddifferenteveningnewsprograms,eachofwhichemphasizedadifferentissue.Afterwatchingthenewsforfourdays,thesubjectsagainfilledoutquestionnairesandtheissuesthattheyratedasmostimportantmatchedtheissuestheyviewedontheeveningnews.[9]Thestudydemonstratedacause-and-effectrelationshipbetweenmediaagendaandpublicagenda.Asof2004,therewereover400empirical（经验的）studiesexaminingtheeffectsofAgendaSetting.[10]Thetheoryhasevolvedbeyondthemedia'

sinfluenceonthepublic'

sperceptionsofissuesaliencetopoliticalcandidatesandcorporatereputation.[11]

[]Functions

Theagenda-settingfunctionhasmultiplecomponents:

▪Mediaagendaareissuesdiscussedinthemedia,suchasnewspapers,television,andradio.

▪Publicagendaareissuesdiscussedamongmembersofthepublic.

▪Policyagendaareissuesthatpolicymakersconsiderimportant,suchaslegislators.

▪Corporateagendaareissuesthatbigcorporationsconsiderimportant.

Thesefouragendasareinterrelated.Thetwobasicassumptionsthatunderlie（潜在）mostresearchonagenda-settingarethatthepressandthemediadonotreflectreality,theyfilterandshapeit,andthemediaconcentrationonafewissuesandsubjectsleadsthepublictoperceivethoseissuesasmoreimportantthanotherissues.

[Mediaagendainthemarketplace

Thekeyroleofagenda-settingistopromote（宣传）socialconsensus（社会合意）andcreatesenseofcommunity（团体）.Thissocialfunctionisthreatenedbygrowingnumberofmediachannels.Theexpandingchoiceofinformationcausesthemorefragmented（碎片）themediasystem.Ascomparedtoinitialagenda-settingstudyinMcCombs’ChapelHill,themediaenvironmenthaschangedconsiderably.

Underthesecircumstances,citizens’participationinagenda-buildingprocessesisnecessarytobuildasenseofcommunity.Inordertomaintainahealthydemocracy,itisnecessarytohavethenumericallymajor,butpoliticallymarginalized（忽视）people’svoicesheardbyallowingthemtoparticipateinthepressuresystematleasttoacertaindegree.Inthissense,buildingpublicagendasisanindispensableprocessthatkeepsademocracyalive.[12]

[Diffusion

Themediausesdiffusion（传播）tospreadideasandaidinitsagendasetting.OpinionLeadersandboundaryspanners（扳手）areveryimportanttothemediaatusingtheirnetworks（关系网）topassontheflowofinformation.

Anopinionleaderisoftensomeonewhoisthoughtofbyotherstoknowasignificantamountofinformationonatopicorisan"

expert"

.Thiscouldbeanyonefromaspecialistinacertainfield,apoliticianwhoistheheadofaspecificcongressional（议会）committee（委员会）,oramomwhoisveryactiveinthePTA.Theyareoftenatthecenterofasocialnetwork,moreattentivetooutsideinformationandcapableofinfluence.Sincetheopinionleadersarethoseinasocialnetworkwhoaremostlikelytowatchthenewsorpayattentiontothenewsmedia,theyareanextremelyimportanttoolatspreadinginformationtothemasses.

BoundarySpannersarethoseinasocialnetworkwhocanspanacrossvarioussocialnetworks.Theycanbeessentialtotheflowofnovelinformation.Boundaryspannerscanbeusedbythenewsmediainsettingitsagendabygettinginformationandideastoavarietyofsocialnetworks,ratherthanjustone.

Astudyshowingtheeffectsofdiffusion（传播流）wasProjectRevere（尊敬）.SociologistsattheUniversityofWashingtonfrom1951to1953woulddropleafletsfromanairplaneontoatown.Theythenwouldseehowlongitwouldtakefortheinformationtopassbywordofmouthtothosewhodidnotgetaleaflet.Theirfindingsshowedthatchildrenareveryeffectiveinthediffusionprocess,thusprovinghoweasyitisforachildtobeaffectedbythenewsmedia.

[]TheAccessibilityBiasandControversy（争论）

S.Iyengar'

sarticletitled"

Theaccessibilitybiasinpolitics:

televisionnewsandpublicopinion"

looksatjustthistheory.

Hestates,"

Ingeneral,'

accessibilitybias'

argumentstipulates（以…为条件，规定）thatinformationthatcanbemoreeasilyretrieved（检索）frommemorytendstodominatejudgments,opinionsanddecisions,andthatintheareaofpublicaffairs,moreaccessibleinformationisinformationthatismorefrequentlyormorerecentlyconveyedbythemedia."

[13]

Althoughtherehasbeenawidelyheldassumptionthattheprimary（首要的）mechanismofagendasettingandpriming（引爆点）isaccessibility（可到达性）（i.e.,theeasewithwhichasetofideasorknowledgecanberetrievedfrommemory）,noempiricalevidenceconfirmedthemediatingroleofaccessibility.[14]Rather,findingsindicatethatthereismoretoagendasettingthanaccessibility.Forexample,researchontheconceptofneedfororientation（导向需求）suggeststhatthedegreeofagenda-settingeffectsisdependentuponperceived（察觉的）issuerelevanceandorientationtowardresolvinguncertainty.Furthermore,Nelsonetal.,foundthatperceivedimportanceofspecificframesplaysamajorroleinshapingpublicperceptionsoftheissueathand,whereasaccessibilityplaysonlyaminorrole.[18]Therefore,asWeaverargued,“notallpersonsareequallyaffectedbythesameamountofprominenceofmediacoverage,andnotalleasilyaccessibleinformationisconsideredimportant.”

[]CognitiveEffectsModel（认知层面作用模式）

EarlymediaeffectsstudiesdonebyBerelson,Lazarsfeld,andMcPheeshowedthatpoliticalcampaignshaveverylittleeffectonvoters,butinsteadthatthoseclosesttothem（familyandfriends）aswellascognitions.

TheCognitiveeffectsmodelfoundthatthemediahasanindirectinfluenceonanaudiences'

attitude.Aviewer（观看者）alreadyhassetideasandopinions,themediacannotdomuchtochangethose.Howeverbyshowingcertainstoriesmoreoftenthanothersandshapingtheagendatheycanshapewhatanaudienceputsimportanceon.Forexample,ifthemediareportsmoreontheeconomythanoninternationalnews,thenpeoplewillhavemoreinformationontheeconomyandthinkthattheissueismoreimportantthanotherthingsthataregoingonaroundthew