曼昆经济学Elasticity and Its ApplicationWord文档格式.docx
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曼昆经济学Elasticity and Its ApplicationWord文档格式.docx
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ELASTICITYAND
ITSAPPLICATION
Learnthemeaningoftheelasticityofsupply
ImagineyourselfasaKansaswheatfarmer.Becauseyouearnallyourincomefromsellingwheat,youdevotemuchefforttomakingyourlandasproductiveasitcanbe.Youmonitorweatherandsoilconditions,checkyourfieldsforpestsanddisease,andstudythelatestadvancesinfarmtechnology.Youknowthatthemorewheatyougrow,themoreyouwillhavetosellaftertheharvest,andthehigherwillbeyourincomeandyourstandardofliving.
OnedayKansasStateUniversityannouncesamajordiscovery.Researchersinitsagronomydepartmenthavedevisedanewhybridofwheatthatraisestheamountfarmerscanproducefromeachacreoflandby20percent.Howshouldyoureacttothisnews?
Shouldyouusethenewhybrid?
Doesthisdiscoverymakeyoubetterofforworseoffthanyouwerebefore?
Inthischapterwewillseethatthesequestionscanhavesurprisinganswers.Thesurprisewillcomefrom
elasticityofsupply
Applytheconceptofelasticityinthree
verydifferentmarkets
93
applyingthemostbasictoolsofeconomics—supplyanddemand—tothemarketforwheat.
Thepreviouschapterintroducedsupplyanddemand.Inanycompetitivemarket,suchasthemarketforwheat,theupward-slopingsupplycurverepresentsthebehaviorofsellers,andthedownward-slopingdemandcurverepresentsthebehaviorofbuyers.Thepriceofthegoodadjuststobringthequantitysuppliedandquantitydemandedofthegoodintobalance.Toapplythisbasicanalysistounderstandtheimpactoftheagronomists’discovery,wemustfirstdeveloponemoretool:
theconceptofelasticity.Elasticity,ameasureofhowmuchbuyersandsellersrespondtochangesinmarketconditions,allowsustoanalyzesupplyanddemandwithgreaterprecision.
THEELASTICITYOFDEMAND
elasticity
ameasureoftheresponsivenessofquantitydemandedorquantitysuppliedtooneofitsdeterminants
priceelasticityofdemandameasureofhowmuchthequantitydemandedofagoodrespondstoachangeinthepriceofthatgood,computedasthepercentagechange
inquantitydemandeddividedbythe
percentagechangeinprice
WhenwediscussedthedeterminantsofdemandinChapter4,wenotedthatbuy-ersusuallydemandmoreofagoodwhenitspriceislower,whentheirincomesarehigher,whenthepricesofsubstitutesforthegoodarehigher,orwhenthepricesofcomplementsofthegoodarelower.Ourdiscussionofdemandwasqualitative,notquantitative.Thatis,wediscussedthedirectioninwhichthequantityde-mandedmoves,butnotthesizeofthechange.Tomeasurehowmuchdemandre-spondstochangesinitsdeterminants,economistsusetheconceptofelasticity.
THEPRICEELASTICITYOFDEMANDANDITSDETERMINANTS
Thelawofdemandstatesthatafallinthepriceofagoodraisesthequantityde-manded.Thepriceelasticityofdemandmeasureshowmuchthequantityde-mandedrespondstoachangeinprice.Demandforagoodissaidtobeelasticifthequantitydemandedrespondssubstantiallytochangesintheprice.Demandissaidtobeinelasticifthequantitydemandedrespondsonlyslightlytochangesintheprice.
Whatdetermineswhetherthedemandforagoodiselasticorinelastic?
Be-causethedemandforanygooddependsonconsumerpreferences,thepriceelas-ticityofdemanddependsonthemanyeconomic,social,andpsychologicalforcesthatshapeindividualdesires.Basedonexperience,however,wecanstatesomegeneralrulesaboutwhatdeterminesthepriceelasticityofdemand.
NecessitiesversusLuxuriesNecessitiestendtohaveinelasticde-mands,whereasluxurieshaveelasticdemands.Whenthepriceofavisittothedoctorrises,peoplewillnotdramaticallyalterthenumberoftimestheygotothedoctor,althoughtheymightgosomewhatlessoften.Bycontrast,whenthepriceofsailboatsrises,thequantityofsailboatsdemandedfallssubstantially.Thereasonisthatmostpeopleviewdoctorvisitsasanecessityandsailboatsasaluxury.Ofcourse,whetheragoodisanecessityoraluxurydependsnotontheintrinsicpropertiesofthegoodbutonthepreferencesofthebuyer.Foranavidsailorwith
CHAPTER5ELASTICITYANDITSAPPLICATION95
littleconcernoverhishealth,sailboatsmightbeanecessitywithinelasticdemandanddoctorvisitsaluxurywithelasticdemand.
AvailabilityofCloseSubstitutesGoodswithclosesubstitutestendtohavemoreelasticdemandbecauseitiseasierforconsumerstoswitchfromthatgoodtoothers.Forexample,butterandmargarineareeasilysubstitutable.Asmallincreaseinthepriceofbutter,assumingthepriceofmargarineisheldfixed,causesthequantityofbuttersoldtofallbyalargeamount.Bycontrast,becauseeggsareafoodwithoutaclosesubstitute,thedemandforeggsisprobablylesselasticthanthedemandforbutter.
DefinitionoftheMarketTheelasticityofdemandinanymarketde-pendsonhowwedrawtheboundariesofthemarket.Narrowlydefinedmarketstendtohavemoreelasticdemandthanbroadlydefinedmarkets,becauseitiseasiertofindclosesubstitutesfornarrowlydefinedgoods.Forexample,food,abroadcategory,hasafairlyinelasticdemandbecausetherearenogoodsubstitutesforfood.Icecream,amorenarrowcategory,hasamoreelasticdemandbecauseitiseasytosubstituteotherdessertsforicecream.Vanillaicecream,averynarrowcategory,hasaveryelasticdemandbecauseotherflavorsoficecreamarealmostperfectsubstitutesforvanilla.
TimeHorizonGoodstendtohavemoreelasticdemandoverlongertimehorizons.Whenthepriceofgasolinerises,thequantityofgasolinedemandedfallsonlyslightlyinthefirstfewmonths.Overtime,however,peoplebuymorefuel-efficientcars,switchtopublictransportation,andmoveclosertowheretheywork.Withinseveralyears,thequantityofgasolinedemandedfallssubstantially.
COMPUTINGTHEPRICEELASTICITYOFDEMAND
Nowthatwehavediscussedthepriceelasticityofdemandingeneralterms,let’sbemorepreciseabouthowitismeasured.Economistscomputethepriceelasticityofdemandasthepercentagechangeinthequantitydemandeddividedbytheper-centagechangeintheprice.Thatis,
Priceelasticityofdemand
Percentagechangeinquantitydemanded
Percentagechangeinprice.
Forexample,supposethata10-percentincreaseinthepriceofanice-creamconecausestheamountoficecreamyoubuytofallby20percent.Wecalculateyourelasticityofdemandas
20percent
Priceelasticityofdemand10percent2.
Inthisexample,theelasticityis2,reflectingthatthechangeinthequantityde-mandedisproportionatelytwiceaslargeasthechangeintheprice.
Becausethequantitydemandedofagoodisnegativelyrelatedtoitsprice,thepercentagechangeinquantitywillalwayshavetheoppositesignasthe
percentagechangeinprice.Inthisexample,thepercentagechangeinpriceisapos-itive10percent(reflectinganincrease),andthepercentagechangeinquantityde-mandedisanegative20percent(reflectingadecrease).Forthisreason,priceelasticitiesofdemandaresometimesreportedasnegativenumbers.Inthisbookwefollowthecommonpracticeofdroppingtheminussignandreportingallpriceelasticitiesaspositivenumbers.(Mathematicianscallthistheabsolutevalue.)Withthisconvention,alargerpriceelasticityimpliesagreaterresponsivenessofquan-titydemandedtoprice.
THEMIDPOINTMETHOD:
ABETTERWAYTOCALCULATEPERCENTAGECHANGESANDELASTICITIES
Ifyoutrycalculatingthepriceelasticityofdemandbetweentwopointsonade-mandcurve,youwillquicklynoticeanannoyingproblem:
TheelasticityfrompointAtopointBseemsdifferentfromtheelasticityfrompointBtopointA.Forexample,considerthesenumbers:
PointA:
Price$4
Quantity120
PointB:
Price$6
Quantity80
GoingfrompointAtopointB,thepricerisesby50percent,andthequantityfallsby33percent,indicatingthatthepriceelasticityofdemandis33/50,or0.66.Bycontrast,goingfrompointBtopointA,thepricefallsby33percent,andthequantityrisesby50percent,indicatingthatthepriceelasticityofdemandis50/33,or1.5.
Onewaytoavoidthisproblemistousethemidpointmethodforcalculatingelasticities.Ratherthancomputingapercentagechangeusingthestandardway(bydividingthechangebytheinitiallevel),themidpointmethodcomputesapercentagechangebydividingthechangebythemidpointoftheinitialandfinallevels.Forinstance,$5isthemidpointof$4and$6.Therefore,accordingtothemidpointmethod,achangefrom$4to$6isconsidereda40percentrise,because(64)/510040.Similarly,achangefrom$6to$4isconsidereda40per-centfall.
Becausethemidpointmethodgivesthesameanswerregardlessofthedirec-tionofchange,itisoftenusedwhencalculatingthepriceelasticityofdemandbe-tweentwopoints.Inourexample,themidpointbetweenpointAandpointBis:
Midpoint:
Price$5Quantity100
Accordingtothemidpointmethod,whengoingfrompointAtopointB,thepricerisesby40percent,andthequantityfallsby40percent.Similarly,whengoingfrompointBtopointA,thepricefallsby40percent,andthequantityrisesby
40percent.Inbothdirections,thepriceelasticityofdemandequals1.
Wecanexpressthemidpointmethodwith
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