儿童教育外文翻译文献Word文件下载.docx
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TheRoleofParentsandCommunityintheEducationoftheJapaneseChild
HeidiKnipprath
Abstract
InJapan,therehasbeenanincreasedconcernaboutfamilyandcommunityparticipationinthechild’seducation.Traditionally,theroleofparentsandcommunityinJapanhasbeenoneofsupportandlessoneofactiveinvolvementinschoollearning.Sincethegovernmentcommencededucationreformsinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury,amoreactiveroleforparentsandthecommunityineducationhasbeenencouraged.Thesereformshavebeeninspiredbytheneedtotacklevariousproblemsthathadarisen,suchastheperceivedharmfulelementsofsociety’spreoccupationwithacademicachievementandtheproblematicbehaviorofyoungpeople.Inthispaper,thefollowingissuesareexamined:
(1)educationpolicyandreformmeasureswithregardtoparentandcommunityinvolvementinthechild’seducation;
(2)thestateofparentandcommunityinvolvementattheeveofthe20thcentury.
KeyWords:
activeinvolvement,community,educationreform,Japan,parents,partnership,schooling,support
Introduction:
TheDiscourseontheAchievementGap
WhenwesternobserversaretemptedtoexplainwhyJapanesestudentsattainhighachievementscoresininternationalcomparativeassessmentstudies,theyarelikelytoaddresstheroleofparentsandinparticularofthemotherintheeducationofthechild.EducationmomisaphraseoftenbroughtforthinthediscourseonJapaneseeducationtodepicttheJapanesemotherasbeingapushy,anddemandinghome-boundtutor,intenselyinvolvedinthechild’seducationduetosevereacademiccompetition.AlthoughthisimageoftheJapanesemotherisastereotypespreadbythepopularmassmediainJapanandabroad,andtheextentbywhichJapanesemothersareabsorbedintheirchildrenisexaggerated(Benjamin,1997,p.16;
Cummings,1989,p.297;
Stevenson&
Stigler,1992,p.82),StevensonandStigler(1992)arguethatJapaneseparentsdoplayanindispensableroleintheacademicperformanceoftheirchildren.Duringtheirlongitudinalandcross-nationalresearchproject,theyandtheircollaboratorsobservedthatJapanesefirstandfifthgraderspersistentlyachievedhigheronmathteststhanAmericanchildren.Besidesrecitingteacher’steachingstyle,culturalbeliefs,andorganizationofschooling,StevensonandStigler(1992)mentionparent’sroleinsupportingthelearningconditionsofthechildtoexplaindifferencesinachievementbetweenelementaryschoolstudentsoftheUnitedStatesandstudentsofJapan.InJapan,childrenreceivemorehelpathomewithschoolwork(Chen&
Stevenson,1989;
Stigler,1992),andtendtoperformlesshouseholdchoresthanchildrenintheUSA(Stevensonetal.,1990;
Stigler,1992).MoreJapaneseparentsthanAmericanparentsprovidespaceandapersonaldeskandpurchaseworkbooksfortheirchildrentosupplementtheirregulartext-booksatschool(Stevensonetal.,1990;
Stigler,1992).Additionally,StevensonandStigler(1992)observedthatAmericanmothersaremuchmorereadilysatisfiedwiththeirchild’sperformancethanAsianparentsare,havelessrealisticassessmentsoftheirchild’sacademicperformance,intelligence,andotherpersonalitycharacteristics,andsubsequentlyhavelowerstandards.BasedontheirobservationofJapanese,ChineseandAmericanparents,childrenandteachers,StevensonandStigler(1992)concludethatAmericanfamiliescanincreasetheacademicachievementoftheirchildrenbystrengtheningthelinkbetweenschoolandhome,creatingaphysicalandpsychologicalenvironmentthatisconducivetostudy,andbymakingrealisticassessmentsandraisingstandards.AlsoBenjamin(1997),whoperformed‘day-to-dayethnography’tofindouthowdifferencesinpracticebetweenAmericanandJapaneseschoolsaffectdifferencesinoutcomes,discussestherelationshipbetweenhomeandschoolandhowtheJapanesemotherisinvolvedintheacademicperformancestandardsreachedbyJapanesechildren.ShearguesthatJapaneseparentsarewillingtopaynoticeableamountsofmoneyfortutoringincommercialestablishmentstoimprovethechild’sperformanceonentranceexaminations,toassistinhomeworkassignments,tofacilitateandsupporttheirchildren’sparticipationinschoolrequirementsandactivities,andtochecknotebooksofteachersonthechild’sprogressandotherschool-relatedmessagesfromtheteacher.Thesebookletsarereadandwrittendailybyteachersandparents.Teachersregularlyprovideadviceandreminderstoparents,andwriteabouthomeworkassignmentsofthechild,specialactivitiesandthechild’sbehavior(Benjamin,1997,p.119,p.1993–1995).Newsletters,parents’visitstoschool,schoolreports,homevisitsbytheteacherandobservationdayssustaincommunicationinlateryearsatschool.AccordingtoBenjamin(1997),schoolsalsoinformparentsabouthowtocoachtheirchildrenonproperbehaviorathome.Shimahara(1986),HessandAzuma(1991),Lynn(1988)andWhite(1987)alsotrytoexplainnationaldifferencesineducationalachievement.TheyarguethatJapanesemotherssucceedininternalizingintotheirchildrenacademicexpectationsandadaptivedispositionsthatfacilitateaneffectiveteachingstrategy,andinsocializingthechildintoasuccessfulpersondevotedtohardwork.
Support,SupportandSupport
Epstein(1995)constructedaframeworkofsixtypesofinvolvementofparentsandthecommunityintheschool:
(1)parenting:
schoolshelpallfamiliesestablishhomeenvironmentstosupportchildrenasstudents;
(2)communicating:
effectiveformsofschool-to-homeandhome-to-schoolcommunicationsaboutschoolprogramsandchildren’sprogress;
(3)volunteering:
schoolsrecruitandorganizeparentshelpandsupport;
(4)learningathome:
schoolsprovideinformationandideastofamiliesabouthowtohelpstudentsathomewithhomeworkandothercurriculum-relatedactivities,decisionsandplanning;
(5)decisionmaking:
schoolsincludeparentsinschooldecisions,developparentleadersandrepresentatives;
and(6)collaboratingwiththecommunity:
schoolsintegrateresourcesandservicesfromthecommunitytostrengthenschoolprograms,familypractices,andstudentlearninganddevelopment.AlltypesofinvolvementmentionedinstudiesofJapaneseeducationandinthediscourseontherootsoftheachievementgapbelongtooneofEpstein’sfirstfourtypesofinvolvement:
thecreationofaconducivelearningenvironment(type4),theexpressionofhighexpectations(type4),assistanceinhomework(type4),teachers’notebooks(type2),mother’swillingnesstofacilitateschoolactivities(type3)teachers’adviceaboutthechild’sbehavior(type1),observationdaysbywhichparentsobservetheirchildintheclassroom(type2),andhomevisitsbytheteachers(type1).Thus,whenonecarefullyreadsStevensonandStigler’s,Benjamin’sandother’swritingsaboutJapaneseeducationandJapanesestudents’highachievementlevel,onenoticesthatparents’roleinthechild’sschoollearningisinparticularoneofsupport,expectedandsolicitedbytheschool.Thefifthtype(decisionmaking)aswellasthesixthtype(communityinvolvement)ishardlyevermentionedinthediscourseontheachievementgap.
In1997,theOECD’sCenterforEducationalResearchandInnovationconductedacross-nationalstudytoreporttheactualstateofparentsaspartnersinschoolinginninecountries,includingJapan.Initsreport,OECDconcludesthattheinvolvementofJapaneseparentsintheirschoolsisstrictlylimited,andthatthebasisonwhichittakesplacetendstobecontrolledbytheteacher(OECD,1997,p.167).AccordingtoOECD(1997),manycountriesarecurrentlyadoptingpoliciestoinvolvefamiliescloselyintheeducationoftheirchildrenbecause
(1)governmentsaredecentralizingtheiradministrations;
(2)parentswanttobeincreasinglyinvolved;
and(3)becauseparentalinvolvementissaidtobeassociatedwithhigherachievementinschool(p.9).However,parentsinJapan,wherestudentsalreadyscorehighlyoninternationalachievementtests,arehardlyinvolvedingovernanceatthenationalandlocallevel,andcommunicationbetweenschoolandfamilytendstobeone-way(Benjamin,1997;
Fujita,1989;
OECD,1997).Alsoparent–teacherassociations(PTA,fubotokyoshinokai)areprimarilypresumedtobesupportiveofschoollearningandnottoparticipateinschoolgovernance(cf.OECD,2001,p.121).Onthedirectionsoftheoccupyingforcesafterthesecondworldwar,PTAwereestablishedinJapaneseschoolsandwereconsideredwiththeelectiveeducationboardstoprovideparentsandthecommunityanopportunitytoparticipateactivelyinschoollearning(Hiroki,1996,p.88;
Nakata,1996,p.139).TheestablishmentofPTAandelectiveeducationboardsareonlytwoexamplesofnumerousreformmeasurestheoccupyingforcestooktodecentralizetheformaleducationsystemandtoexpandeducationalopportunities.Butaftertheyleftthecountry,theJapanesegovernmentwasquicktoundoliberaleducationreformmeasuresandreducedthecommunityandparentalroleineducation.ThestipulationthatPTAshouldnotinterferewithpersonnelandotheradministrativetasksofschools,andthereplacementofelectiveeducationboardsbyappointedones,letlocaleducationboardsbelievethatparentsshouldnotgetinvolvedwithschooleducationatall(Hiroki,1996,p.88).Teacherswereregardedtobetheexpertsandtheparentstobethelaymenineducation(Hiroki,1996,p.89).
Insum,studiesofJapaneseeducationpointintoonedirection:
parentalinvolvementmeansbeingsupportive,andcommunityinvolvementishardlyanissueatall.Butwhatisthea
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