考研语言学概论Word格式文档下载.docx
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考研语言学概论Word格式文档下载.docx
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Word?
Lexeme?
Vocabulary?
“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:
(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.,[itiz‘w](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);
(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);
(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat
(1)again;
everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence).
AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:
asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:
(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);
(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:
(1)variableandinvariablewords(e.g.,-mats,seldom-?
);
(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,ect.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;
(3)closed-classandopen-classwords(seeI.47).
Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabtractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:
“write”,“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.”
“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.
1.49.Whatiscollocation?
“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;
“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.
1.50.Whatissyntax?
“Syntax”isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensententialelements.
1.51.Whatisasentence?
L.Bloomfielddefines“sentence”asanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticfrom,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,itisastructurallyindependentlinguisticform.Itisalsocalledamaximumfreeform.
1.52.Whataresyntacticrelations?
“Syntacticrelations”refertothewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences;
hencethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:
positionalrelations,relationsofsubstitutabilityandrelationsofco-occurrence.
“Positionalrelation”,or“wordorder”,referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatF.deSaussurecalled“syntagmaticrelations”,orofwhatotherlinguistscall“horizontalrelations”or“chainrelations”.
“Relationsofsubstitutability”refertoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“associativerelations”.Otherpeoplecallthem“paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”.
By“relationsofco-occurrence”,onemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelationsandpartlytoparadigmaticrelations.
1.53.WhatisICanalysis?
Whatareimmediateconstituents(andultimateconstituents)?
“ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents”,andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.Forexample,“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented:
“John|left||yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(|),andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit(||)thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:
“John”,“left”and“yesterday”.
1.54.Whatareendocentricandexocentricconstructons?
“Endocentricconstruction”isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinable“centre”or“head”.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetothehead.“Exocentricconstruction”,oppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupaswhole;
thatistosay,thereisnodefinablecentreorheadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.
1.55.Whatisasubject?
Apredicate?
Anobject?
Insomelanguage,an“subject”referstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase,suchas“pater”inthefollowingexample:
“paterfiliumamat”(putliterallyinEnglish:
thefatherthesonloves).InEnglish,a“grammaticalsubject”referstoanounwhichcanestablishcorrespondencewiththeverbandwhichcanbecheckedbyatag-questiontest,e.g.,“Heisagoodcook(,isn’the?
).”
A“predicate”referstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectareconsideredtogether.e.g.,inthesentence“Themonkeyisjumping”,“isjumping”isthepredicate.
Traditionally“object”referstothereceiverorgoalofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintotwokinds:
directobjectandindirectobject.Insomeinflectinglanguages,anobjectismarkedbycaselabels:
the“accusativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”forindirecttowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).E.g.,inthesentence“Johnkissedme”,“me”istheobject.Modernlinguistssuggestthatanobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomeasubjectinpassivetransformation.
1.56.Whatiscategory?
Theterm“category”insomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:
thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;
andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc.
1.57.Whatisnumber?
Whatisgender?
Whatiscase?
“Number”isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:
singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs.
“Gender”displayssuchcontrastsas“masculine”,“feminine”,“neuter”,or“animate”and“inanimate”,etc.,fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities,wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender).
“Case”identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:
byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.
1.58.Whatisconcord?
Whatisgovernment?
“Concord”maybedefinedasrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallbecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategoryorcategories,e.g.,“manruns”,“menrun”.“Government”requiresthatonewordofaparticularclassinagivensyntacticclassshallexhibittheformofaspecificcategory.InEnglish,governmentappliesonlytopronounsamongthevariablewords,thatis,prepositionsandverbsgovernparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtotheirsyntacticrelationwiththem,e.g.,“Ihelpedhim;
hehelpedme.”
1.59.Whatisaphrase?
Whatisaclause?
A“phrase”isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof“clauses”.Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierachy,fallingbetweenaclauseandword,e.g.,“thethreetallestgirls”(nominalphrase).Thereisnowatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenwordgroupsandphrases.A“wordgroup”isanextensionofawordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesofthe
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