语言学整理.docx
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语言学整理.docx
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语言学整理
Unit1LanguageandLinguistics
★1.1TheNatureofLanguage
①Languageissystematic:
eachhumanlanguageisorganizedintotwobasicsystems---asystemofsoundsandsystemofmeaning.Thisiscalledthedualityoflanguage.
②Languageissymbolic:
Asweknow,peopleusesignstocommunicate,whichmeansthatlanguageinvolvessigns.Signscanbecategorizedintothreemajortypes---Icon图像符号,Index指示符号,Symbol象征符号
③Languageisarbitrary:
Arbitrarydoesnotmeanthateverythingaboutlanguageisunpredictable.Theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalresemblancetotheirmeaning.Conceptandsound-imagearereplacedbysignified所指,受指andsignifier能指,施指respectively.Themostarbitraryleveloflanguageisthatofthedistinctiveunitsofsound.Itisbecausesoundunitsaredistinctive.Syntaxislessarbitrarythanwords.Wordsarearbitraryinform,buttheyarenotrandomintheiruse.
④Languageisprimarilyvocal:
Theprimarymediumoflanguageissound.Spokenlanguageincludesthreekindsofunits---sounds,syllablesandwords.
Reasonsforclaimingthatlanguageinprimarilyvocal
(1)Childrenlearntospeakbeforetheylearntoreadandwrite.
(2)Childrenautomaticallylearnalanguageastheygrowup.
(3)Thespokenformcameearlierthanthewritteninhumanhistory.
(4)Writingisbasedonspeech
(5)Popleusespokenlanguagemoreoftenthanwriting.
⑤Languageishumanspecific
Therearecertaincharacteristicsofhumanlanguagethatarenotfoundinthecommunicationsystemsofanyotherspecies.Althoughmostanimalsareassumedtocommunicateinsomeway,theyconveylimitedinformationandonlyexpressemotionssuchasfearandwarnings.
(1)Languagehastheabilitytorefertothingsfarremovedintimeandspace.
(2)Humanshavetheabilitytoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofnovelutterances.
(3)Learningismuchmoreimportantasafactorinhumanlanguagethaninanimalcommunication.
(4)Languageiscomplexinitsstructure.
(5)Animalcommunicationsystemsareclosed,whereashumanlanguagesareopen-ended.
(6)Humancanperformactswithlanguagejustastheycanwithobjectsofdifferentkinds.
⑥Languageisusedforcommunication
Languageistheresultofourcommunicativeneeds.Itsattractivenesscomesfromitssocialutility.Languageenablesustocommunicateourgeneralattitudestowardlifeandothers.
★PPT----FeaturesofHumanLanguage
①Displacement位移性:
Humanlanguageusersareperfectlycapableofproducingmessagesreferringtopastandfuturetime,andtootherlocations.
②Productivity多产性:
Itisafeatureofalllanguagethatnovelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.
③Arbitrariness任意性:
Itisgenerallythecasethatthereisno‘natural’connectionbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.
④Duality双重性:
Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Atonelevel,wehavedistinctsounds,and,atanotherlevel,wehavedistinctmeanings.Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemosteconomicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableofproducingalargenumberofsoundcombinationswhicharedistinctinmeaning.
⑤Culturaltransmission文化传递性:
Thisprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextisdescribedasculturaltransmission.
⑥Discreteness零散性:
Thesoundsusedinlanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.Forexample,thedifferencebetweenabsoundandapsoundisnotactuallyverygreat,butwhenthesesoundsarepartofalanguagelikeEnglish,theyareusedinsuchawaythattheoccurrenceofoneratherthantheotherismeaningful.ThefactthatthepronunciationoftheformpackandbackleadstoadistinctioninmeaningcanonlybeduetothedifferencebetweenthepandbsoundsinEnglish.Thispropertyoflanguageisdescribedasdiscreteness.
1.2TheFunctionsofLanguage
Thefactthatlanguagefunctionsinoursocietymakesitpossibletoviewlanguageintermsofthesocialfunctionitserves.
Malinowski(1923)regardslanguageasnotaself-containedsystem,butasentirelydependentonthesocietyinwhichitisused.Inhisview,threemajorfunctionsoflanguagearedistinguished:
(1)Thepragmaticfunction:
languageasaformofaction;
(2)Themagicalfunction:
languageasameansofcontroloverenvironment;
(3)Thephaticfunction(寒暄功能):
languageasameanstohelpestablishandmaintainsocialrelations.
Generallyspeaking,thefunctionsoflanguagecanbecategorizedintogeneralfunctionsandmetafunctions(元功能).Generalfunctionsrefertotheparticularindividualusesoflanguagewhilemetafunctionsrefertothemoregeneralpurposesunderlyinglanguageuse.
①GeneralFunctionsofLanguage
(1)PhysiologicalFunction(生理功能):
itcanhelpgetridofnervousorphysicalenergy.Thisfunctionisalsoknownastheemotiveorexpressivefunctionoflanguage.
(2)PhaticFunction(寒暄功能):
ThenotionofphaticcommunioniscoinedbyMarlinowski,whoholdsthatlanguagecanservethefunctionofcreatingormaintainingsocialrelationshipbetweenspeakers.
(3)Informativefunction(信息功能):
Hallidaynotesthat“languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’,thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.
(4)Performativefunction(施为功能):
Theperformativefunctionisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofthosepersonsinvolved,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,etc.
(5)RecordingFunction:
languageallowsustorecordthingswewishtoremember.
(6)IdentifyingFunction(指示功能):
Languageallowsustoidentify,withconsiderableprecision,anenormousarrayofobjectsandevents.
(7)ReasongingFunction(推理功能):
languageiscommonlyregardedasatoolofthought.
Whenwehaveideasforminginourminds,weneedtofindtheappropriatewordstoexpresstheseideas.
(8)CommunicatingFunction(交际功能):
languageisameansofcommunicatingideasandfacts.Inhumansociety,peopleneedtounderstandandbeunderstood,tohavetheirfeelingsandideasrecognizedandacknowledged.Languageiswellequippedwiththisfunction.
(9)PleasureFunction(娱乐功能):
languageallowsustoderivepleasurefromit.
②MetafunctionsofLanguage
(1)IdeationalFunction(概念功能):
ideationalfunctionreferstothefunctionoflanguagetoconstrue(识解)theexperienceoftheworldthatisaroundandinsideus.Itisthroughthisfunctionthatlanguageallowsustoconceptualize(使....概念化)theexperienceoftheworld.
Theideationalfunctionisdividedintoexperientialfunctionandlogicalfunction.
(2)InterpersonalFunction人际功能:
Interpersonalfunctionoflanguagemeansthefunctionwhichenablesthespeakers(writers)andthelisteners(readers)maintaininteractionsandthusenactsasocialandintersubjectiverelationship.
(3)TextualFunction语篇功能:
Textualfunctionenablestheothertwofunctionstooperateanditrepresentsthespeaker’stext-formingpotential.Relatesourabilitiestoconstructtextsoutofourutterancesandwritings.
1.3TheOriginandClassificationofLanguage
①TheOriginofLanguage
(1)DivineOrigin(Creation):
Accordingtooneview,GodcreatedAdamand“whateverAdamcalledeverylivingcreature,thatwasthenamethereof".Inmostreligions,thereappearstobeadivinesourcewhoprovideshumanswithlanguage.
(2)Invention:
theinventiontheoryseestheoriginoflanguageintheimitationofnaturalsoundsandseekstoexplainthecorrespondencebetweensoundandmeaning.
(3)Evolutionarysource:
Thosewhobelieveinevolutionarytheorytendtobelievethatmanevolvedfromlowerformoflife.Language,too,evolvedasanadjuncttoearlycommunication(pointing,gesturing,grunting,imitationofanimalsounds,etc.).Accordingtothistheory,focusismainlyonthebiologicalbasisoftheformationanddevelopmentofhumanlanguage.
②LanguageFamilies语系
(1)GeneticClassification谱系分类法:
Thisisahistoricalclassification,basedontheassumptionthatlanguageshavedivergedfromacommonancestor.
(2)typologicalclassification类型学分类法:
Thisisbasedonacomparisonoftheformalsimilaritieswhichexistbetweenlanguages.Itisanattempttogrouplanguagesintostructuraltypes,onthebasisofphonology,grammar,orvocabulary,ratherthanintermsofanyrealorassumedhistoricalrelationship.
TheIndo-Europeanisthelargestfamily
TheSino-TibetanfamilyincludesChineseanditsnumerousdialects,Burmese,andsomesoutheastAsianlanguage.
PPT---WhatsortoflanguageisEnglish?
A:
(1)EnglishisaGermaniclanguage,accordingtothegenericmethodofclassification.Butfromotherpointsofview,thepicturealters.Culturally,itdisplaysmanysimilaritieswithRomance,inviewofthelargenumberofloanwordsithastakeninfromFrenchandItalian,andthewaytheselanguageshaveevenexercisedsomeinfluenceongrammarandphonology.
(2)Fromatypologicalviewpoint,EnglishisinfactmoresimilartoanisolatinglanguagelikeChinesethanLatin:
therearefewinflectionalendings,andword-orderchangesarethebasisofthegrammar.
1.4WhatisLinguistics
①DefinitionofLinguistics
Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguage,oralternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage.
②Mainbranchesoflinguistic:
Phonetics,Phonology,morphology,syntax,andsemantics
③SomeImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics
(1)★LangueanParole(语言和言语)
Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofspeechcommunity;Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse./Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby,andparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules./Langueisabstract,whileparoleisconcrete./Langueisrelativelystable,whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.
(2)Prescr
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