北科大语言学内部教学教案7考研必备.docx
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北科大语言学内部教学教案7考研必备.docx
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北科大语言学内部教学教案7考研必备
Lecture7Meaning
Sofarwehavefinishedthediscussionofgrammaticalunitsinalanguageatdifferentlevels.Inthefollowingtwoweeks,wewillconcernourselveswiththemeaningofthesegrammaticalunits.Thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,inparticular,wordsandsentences,iscalledsemantics.
Differentfromthesounds,morphemes,wordsandclausesthatwehavediscussed,meaningissomethingthatisratherintangibleandinvisible.Wecannotcutmeaningupintoconstituentsinthewaywecutupasyntacticconstruction.Meaningisalsoelusive,inthatyoucannotpindownthemeaningofawordorsentence.Thereforewhatwearegoingtodiscussinthischapterisnotsomethingdefinite,butonlytentativeproposals.
Beforewedealwithmeaning,let’sfirstmakeclearthedifferentbranchesofthestudyofmeaning.Inlinguistics,wemakeadistinctionbetweensemanticsandpragmatics.Theformerstudiesthemeaningofwordsandsentenceswhilethelatterthemeaningofutterances,inanotherword,thespeaker’smeaning.Withinsemantics,wemakeadistinctionbetweenlinguisticsemantics,whichstudiesthemeaningofwordsandsentences,andlogical/philosophicallinguistics,whichstudiesthepropositionalmeaningorcompositionalmeaning.
Although“semantics”asalinguistictermwascoinedonlyin1893byMichelBréal(1832-1915),sémantique,andtheEnglishtermbegantobeusedonlyin1900,thestudyofmeaninghasaverylonghistory.Meaninghasbeenstudiedforthousandsofyearsbyphilosophers,logiciansandlinguists,forexample,Plato,Aristotle,&LaoZi.
Whilelogiciansandphilosophershavetendedtoconcentrateonarestrictedrangeofsentences(typically,statements,or“propositions”)withinasinglesentence,thelinguisticapproachisbroaderinscope.Itaimstostudythepropertiesofmeaninginasystematicandobjectiveway,withreferencetoaswidearangeofutterancesandlanguagesaspossible.
Ourdiscussiononmeaningwillbedividedintofiveparts.Firstwe’lldealwithwhatismeantby“meaning”,thatis,themeaningof“meaning”.Thenwewilltalkaboutanimportanttheoryconcerningthestudyofmeaning,thereferentialtheory.Nextwewilltalkaboutthedifferentsenserelations.Wehopetofinishthesethreepartsintoday’slecture.Andnextweekwe’llbedealingwithcomponentialanalysisandsentencemeaning.
7.1Themeaningof“meaning”
OnedifficultyinthestudyofMEANINGisthattheword“meaning”itselfhasdifferentmeanings.IntheirbookTheMeaningofMeaningwrittenin1923,C.K.Ogden(1889-1957)andI.A.Richards(1893-1979)listed22meaningsofmeaning.Belowaresomeexample:
1)Johnmeanstowrite.
2)Agreenlightmeanstogo.
3)Healthmeanseverything.
4)Hislookwasfullofmeaning.
5)Whatisthemeaningoflife?
6)Whatdoes“capitalist”meantoyou?
7)Whatdoes“cornea”mean?
GeofferyLeechrecognizes7typesofmeaninginhisSemantics:
TheStudyofmeaning(1974,1981).
Conceptualmeaning概念意义
Connatativemeaning内涵意义
Associativemeaning
联想意义
Socialmeaning社会意义
Affectivemeaning情感意义
Reflectedmeaning反映意义
Collocativemeaning搭配意义
Thematicmeaning主题意义
Conceptualmeaningissometimesalsocalled“denotative”meaningor“cognitive”meaning.Itreferstothelogical,cognitiveordenotativecontentofalinguisticunit.Itisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthingitdenotes,orrefersto.Forexample,“woman”referstoafemaleadulthumanbeing,then“femaleadulthumanbeing”istheconceptualmeaningof“woman”.
By“connotativemeaning”,Leechreferstothecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.Itisamultitudeofadditional,non-criterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.Forexample,theword“woman”notonlyreferstoafemaleadulthuman,italsohassomeadditionalfeatures,includingphysicalfeatureslike“bipeds,havingawomb”,socialpsychologicalfeatureslike“enjoygatheringtogether,havingmotherlyinstinct”,typicalbutnotnecessaryfeatureslike“goodatcooking,wearingskirtsordresses”andevenqualitieslike“sentimental,irrational,sympathetic,diligent”,etc.Therefore,theconnotativemeaninginvolvesthe“realword”experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.Comparedwithconceptualmeaning,thismeaningisunstable:
theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.Anycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.
Socialmeaningreferstowhatapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.Thesocialmeaningofanexpressionvariesaccordingto
Dialect方言,thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass
Time时间,thelanguageofthe18thc.,etc.
Province使用域,thelanguageoflaw,ofscience,ofadvertising,etc.
Status等级,polite,colloquial,slang,etc.
Modality语气,languageofmemoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.
Singularity特性,thestyleofDickens,Hemingway,etc.
Forexample,theconceptof“whereapersonlives”maybeexpressedby
domicile:
veryformal,official
residence:
formal
abode:
poetic
home:
general
Adomesticanimalwearefamiliarwithmaybeexpressedas:
steed:
poetic
horse:
general
nag:
slang
gee-gee:
baby
TheFiveClocksbyMartinJoos(Harcourt,1967,c1962)isadelightfulessaythattakesamoresophisticatedstancetowardlinguisticvariation.ThefirstthreeofJoos’s“clocks”areallinformal:
(1)intimate,thelanguageusedbetween,say,ahusbandandwife,almostnonverbal;
(2)casual,forfriends,acquaintances,insiders,makinguseofslang,ellipses,andverbalformulas(“Beenthere;donethat!
”);(3)consultative,languageusedinnegotiatingwithstrangers,distantacquaintances,orcolleaguesofunequalrank.Thefourthclock,formal,isrequiredwhenthegroupbecomestoolargetopermitparticipation,andthespeakerisuncertainhowmuchtheaudiencealreadyknowsorhowtheymightreact.Hence,thelanguagemustbecomemorecohesive,moredetached,morecarefullyinformative.Thefifth,andmostenigmaticclock,Jooslabelsas“frozen”language,ora“formativeclock.”Itislanguageusedinatextthatisreadandre-read,thatmuststandintact,thatmustaddressanaudienceofabsolutestrangers,thatcannotdependuponthespeaker’sintonationorthereader/hearer’saskingforclarification.Literarytexts,religiousrituals,historicdocumentsexemplify“frozen”language:
Shakespeare’sHamlet,theLord’sPrayer,thePreambletotheUSConstitution.
Affectivemeaningreflectsthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.Forexample,toaskapersontobequiet,youmaysay:
I’mterriblysorrytointerrupt,butIwonderifyouwouldbesokindastolower
yourvoicealittle,or
Willyoubeltup.
Reflectedmeaningarisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Forexample,Leechmentionsthatinthechurchthetwoexpressions“theComforter”and“theHolyGhost”makehimfeeldifferently,reflectingtheeverydaymeaningofthetwowords“comfort”and“ghost”.“Comforter”makespeoplefeel“warm”and“comfortable”,althoughinreligioussense,“comforter”means“providingstrengthandsupport”while“theHolyGhost”makespeoplefullofveneration.
Collocativemeaningreferstotheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.Forexample,thetwowords“pretty”and“handsome”overlapsomewhatintheconceptualmeaning,buttheydifferinthewordsthatcollocatewiththem:
Pretty:
girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.
Handsome:
boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewrite,etc.
Thematicmeaningsreferstowhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focusandemphasis.Forexample,anactivesentenceandapassivesentencemayseemtobethesameinconceptualmeaning,buttheyhavedifferentcommunicativevalues.
1)Mrs.BessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.
2)ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrs.BessieSmith.
Thefirstsentenceanswersthequestion“whatdidMrs.BessieSmithdonate?
”whilethesecondanswersthequestion“whodonatedthefirstprize?
”
Ineverydayconversation,therearefourtypesofmeaningof“meaning”:
1.theobjectitstandsfor:
Inansweringthequestion“whatisadesk?
”youmaypointtoadeskintherealworld.Thisisthecommonestwayofexplainingmeaningandit’sthewayusedwhenadultsteachingvocabularytochildren.
2.descriptionofthatobject:
Youmaydescribeadeskas“apieceoffurniturewithaflattopandfourlegs,onwhichonereadsandwrites”.
3.paraphraseoftheword:
Youmayalsosay“Adeskisakindoftablewithdrawers”.
4.translationoftheword:
AnEnglishteachermaysaytohisChinesestudent:
Adeskis书桌.
7.2TheReferentialtheory所指理论
Thisisaverypopulartheory.Itreferstothetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitreferstoorstandsfor.Forexample,aswehavejustmentioned,inexplaining“whatisadesk”,wemaypointtoadeskintherealword.Thatistheobjecttheword“desk”standsfor.
Butthetheoryhasitsproblems.Whenwepointtoaspecificdeskintherealword,wedon’tmeanthatadeskshouldbeexactlythesameastheonewepointtoinsize,shape,colour,material,etc.Theobjectwepointto,tha
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