On the Speech Act of Apology in Chinese.docx
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On the Speech Act of Apology in Chinese.docx
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OntheSpeechActofApologyinChinese
OntheSpeechActofApologyinChinese
ChapterOneIntroduction
Theterm“discourseanalysis”wasfirstemployedbyZ.HarrisinhisDiscourseanalysisin1952whichwasconsideredthepreludetomoderndiscourseanalyses.Sincethe1980’s,manyworksondiscourseanalysishaveappearedsuchasDiscourseAnalysis:
ASocialLinguisticsAnalysisonNatureLanguagebyMichaelStubbs(1982);DiscourseAnalysisbyGillianBrownandGeorgeYule(1983);IntroductiontoDiscourseAnalysisbyMalcolmCoulthard(1985);DiscourseandliteraturebyVanDijk(1985);DiscoursebyBuyCook(1989);DiscourseAnalysisforLanguageTeacherbyMichaelMcCarty(1991);DiscourseandLanguageEducationbyEvelynHatch(1992);AnIntroductiontoDiscourseAnalysis:
TheoryandmethodbyJamaesPaulGee(1999)tonameafew.InChinaEssentialsofTextAnalysis(1988)byHuangGuowenmightbetheearliestbookwhichgivesasystematicintroductiontodiscourseanalysistheory.TextCohesionandCoherence(1994)byHuZhuanglinmakesacontrastanalysisonEnglishandChinesediscourse.AnIntroductiontoTextLinguistics(1994)byWangFuxiangmakesanintroductiontotheChinesediscoursewhichpromotestothedevelopmentofdiscourseanalysisinChina.Thedifferentapproachesandperspectivesadoptedtostudyhumancommunicationmakeitdifficulttopresentanexactdefinitionofdiscourseanalysis.‘Itwouldbeniceifwecouldsqueezeallweknowaboutdiscourseintoahandydefinition.Unfortunately,asisalsothecaseforrelatedconceptsas‘language’,‘communication’,‘interaction’,‘society’and‘culture’,thenotionofdiscourseisessentiallyfuzzy.’(VanDijk,1997:
1).Inpursuingtheseareasofresearch,discourseanalysisemploysavarietyofresearchmethods,rangingfromethnographicfieldworkandconversationanalysistocorpus-basedanalyses,elicitationtechniques,anddetailedanalysisofvideo-andaudio-recordeddata.Thereisnostandardparadigmofdescriptionindiscourseanalysis.Thispaperdescribessomeofthedifferentapproachestodiscourseanalysisandsuggeststhatamulti-dimensionalapproachshouldbeadaptedindiscourseanalysis.
Somepeoplemightclaimthatdiscourseunderstandingisasimplematteroflinguisticdecoding.Virtuallyanyutterancecanbeusedtoshowthatthishypothesisiswrong.ThereisagapbetweenknowingwhatasentenceofEnglishmeansandunderstandingallthataspeakerintendstocommunicatebyutteringitonanygivenoccasion.Sincediscourseisasocialactivityandthewayanutteranceconstitutesaparticularformofactionemergesfromitsplacementwithinalargersocialactivity,therefore,inordertounderstandthelanguageofsocialinteractionitisimportanttounderstanditssocio-culturalandpsychologicalbackgroundaswell.Thismeansthatdiscourseanalysisisnotrestrictedtoasingledisciplinebutisessentiallyinterdisciplinary.
ChapterTwoDifferentApproachestoDiscourseAnalysis
Thispaperdescribesfiveapproachestodiscourseanalysis1.HallidayanApproach2.SpeechActTheory3.ConversationAnalysis4.RelevanceTheory5.EthnographyofCommunication6.MentalApproaches.Thereisacertaindegreeofoverlapbetweentheapproaches,buttheinitialhypothesesvaryconsiderably.Theyalsodifferinthattheyregardmeaningdifferently,eitherasalinguisticorasocialphenomenon.Schiffrindifferentiatestheseapproachesaccordingtothreecriteria:
(i)Theindividualparticipantsofaninteractionandtheirintentions,socialactsandspeechacts,linguisticcompetenceandworldknowledge.
(ii)Linguisticinteractionoftheparticipantsasaproductofcooperation.
(iii)Thetypeofcommunication.
(Schiffrin,D.(1994).Approachestodiscourse)
1.TheFunctionalAnalysisofEnglish:
AHallidayanApproach
SystematicandfunctionalgrammaristhemostimportantgrammariantheoryinlanguagestudywhichwasputforwardbyM.A.K.HallidayandhasastronginfluenceinChina.Hallidayrecognizesthreemacrofunctions:
ideational,interpersonal,andtextual.
Theideationalfunctionistoconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer.Thisfunctionispresentinalllanguageuse.Thisisbecausewhateverspecificuseoneismakingoflanguagehehastorefertocategoriesofhisexperienceoftheworld.Theideationalfunctionisameaningpotential.Thewholeoftransitivitysystem,forexample,ispartoftheideationalcomponent.Inthisrespect,thisfunctionnotonlyspecifiestheavailableoptionsinmeaningbutalsodeterminesthenatureoftheirstructuralrealizations.
Theinterpersonalfunctionembodiesallusesoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelations.Thisincludesthevariouswaysthespeakerentersspeechsituationandperformsaspeechact.Thisfunctionisrealizedbymoodandmodality.Moodshowswhatrolethespeakerselectsinthespeechsituationandwhatroleheassignstotheaddressee.Ifthespeakerselectstheimperativemood,heassurestheroleofonegivingcommandsandputtingtheaddresseeintheroleofoneexpectedtoobeyorders.Modalityspecifiesifthespeakerisexpressinghisjudgmentormakingaprediction(i.e.“Itwillraintomorrow.”)
Thetextualfunctionsreferstothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenorwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingmessagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.Thiscanbeseenfromthefollowingtwosetsofsentences:
1.Johnsawahandbaginafield.Johnwalkedacrossafieldandpickedupahandbag.JohntookahandbagtothePoliceStationandJohnhandedinahandbagaslostproperty.WhenJohnhadhandedinahandbagaslostproperty,Johnwenthome.
2.Johnsawahandbaginafield.Hewalkedacrossthefieldandpickedupthehandbag.HetookthehandbagtothePoliceStationandhandeditinaslostproperty.WhenJohnhaddonethis,hewenthome.
Wefindthatthesecondsetofsentencesreadsmuchmorelikeacoherenttextthanthefirst,thoughtheirideationalandinterpersonalfunctionareexactlythesame.Thetextualfunctioncanalsohighlightcertainpartsofthetext.Forexample,in“suchbooksIneverread,butgoodpoetryIdoenjoyreading”,“suchbooks”and“goodpoetry”arehighlighted.Attentionisdrawntothembecausetheyhavebeenmovedbeforetheirsubjectandpredicator.
InhisTowardsaCloserRelationshipBetweentheStudyofGrammarandtheStudyofDiscourse(1997),hegivesadescriptionfromthefollowingthreeaspects:
1)Textandcohesion
2)Theme-ryhemeanalysis
3)Informationstructure
1.1Textandcohesion
Systematicandfunctionalgrammartheoristshavebeenconcernedtoprovideatighter,moreformalaccountofhowspeakersofEnglishcometoidentifyatextasformingatext.FunctionalgrammartheoristslikeHillday&Hasanareconcernedwiththeprincipleofconnectivitywhichbindatexttogetherandformaco-interpretation.
Holliday&Hasantaketheviewthattheprimarydeterminantofwhetherasetofsentencesdoordonotconstituteatextdependsoncohesiverelationshipswithinandbetweensentences,whichcreatetexture:
‘Atexthastextureandthisiswhatisprovidedbythecohesiverelation(1976:
2).Cohesiverelationshipswithinatextaresetup‘wheretheinterpretationofsomeelementinthediscourseisdependentonthatofanother.Theonepresupposestheotherinthesensethatitcannotbeeffectivelydecodedexceptbyrecoursetoit’(1976:
4).Aparadigmexampleofsuchacohesiverelationshipisgiven(1976:
2):
Washandcoresixcookingapples.Putthemintoafireproofdish.
Ofthistexttheysay:
“Itisclearthattheminsecondsentencerefersbackto(isanaphoricto)thesixcookingapplesinthefirstsentences.Thisanaphoricfunctionofthemgivescohesiontosentences,sothatweinterpretthemasawhole;thetwosentencestogetherconstituteatext’(1976:
2).
Halliday&Hasanoutlineataxonomyoftypesofcohesiverelationshipswhichcanbeformallyestablishedwithinatext,providingcohesive‘ties’whichbindatexttogether.
1.2Theme-rhemeanalysis
Thereisalongtraditionofdiscussingtopic(theme)andcomment(rheme)inthecontextofanalyzingtheinformationalstructureofdiscoursebuttheseattemptsneverreallymovedbeyondthesentence-pairboundary.Inotherwords,theywerenotproperlycontextualized.ItstartedinthePragueSchooltraditionofanalyzingthemesandrhemesinsentences,anapproachbasedontheassessmentoftheassumedinformationflow(‘communicativedynamism’)withinthem.Themainproblemindescribingthetheme-rheme-structureofsentencesliesinthefactthatvarioussemantic(ideational)andpragmatic(interpersonal)criteriaandthecriterionofthelinguisticformmaybeapplied.
AsimpleexplanationofthemeinEnglishistothinkofitastheidearepresentedbytheconstituentatthestartingpointoftheclause.ThishasbeenexpressedbyHallidayas“thepointofdepartureofthemessage’.Aclausebeginswitharealizationofthetheme.Thisisfollowedbytherealizationoftherheme,whichcanbeexplainedasbeingtherestofthemessage:
THEME-------RHEME
Oneoftheheuristicstartingpointsofthetheme-rhymediscussionisthefactthatsentencesindiscoursecontainsomeinformationwhichthespeakerpresupposestobeknownbythehearerandsomeinformationwhichthespeakerasserts.Theformerisoftenreferredtoas‘old’or‘given’informationandthelatteras‘new’.Thusthetheme-rhemecontrasthingesonthepresenceorabsenceofanaphorictiestotheprevioustext.Withregardtonouns,thismeansthatthedifferencebetweendefinitenessandindefinitenesscanserveasanindicatorofanaphoricity.Anotherpointofdeparturei
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