A Brief History of InternetWord格式文档下载.docx
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A Brief History of InternetWord格式文档下载.docx
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RobertE.Kahn,LeonardKleinrock,DanielC.Lynch,
JonPostel,LarryG.Roberts,StephenWolff
*Introduction
*OriginsoftheInternet
*TheInitialInternetting
*ConceptsProvingtheIdeas
*TransitiontoWidespreadInfrastructure
*TheRoleofDocumentation
*FormationoftheBroadCommunity
*CommercializationoftheTechnology
*HistoryoftheFuture
*Footnotes
*Timeline
*References
*Authors
Introduction
TheInternethasrevolutionizedthecomputerandcommunicationsworldlikenothingbefore.Theinventionofthetelegraph,telephone,radio,andcomputersetthestageforthisunprecedentedintegrationofcapabilities.TheInternetisatonceaworld-widebroadcastingcapability,amechanismforinformationdissemination,andamediumforcollaborationandinteractionbetweenindividualsandtheircomputerswithoutregardforgeographiclocation.
TheInternetrepresentsoneofthemostsuccessfulexamplesofthebenefitsofsustainedinvestmentandcommitmenttoresearchanddevelopmentofinformationinfrastructure.Beginningwiththeearlyresearchinpacketswitching,thegovernment,industryandacademiahavebeenpartnersinevolvinganddeployingthisexcitingnewtechnology.Today,termslike"
bleiner@computer.org"
and"
//www.acm.org"
triplightlyoffthetongueoftherandompersononthestreet.1
Thisisintendedtobeabrief,necessarilycursoryandincompletehistory.MuchmaterialcurrentlyexistsabouttheInternet,coveringhistory,technology,andusage.AtriptoalmostanybookstorewillfindshelvesofmaterialwrittenabouttheInternet.2
Inthispaper,3severalofusinvolvedinthedevelopmentandevolutionoftheInternetshareourviewsofitsoriginsandhistory.Thishistoryrevolvesaroundfourdistinctaspects.ThereisthetechnologicalevolutionthatbeganwithearlyresearchonpacketswitchingandtheARPANET(andrelatedtechnologies),andwherecurrentresearchcontinuestoexpandthehorizonsoftheinfrastructurealongseveraldimensions,suchasscale,performance,andhigherlevelfunctionality.Thereistheoperationsandmanagementaspectofaglobalandcomplexoperationalinfrastructure.Thereisthesocialaspect,whichresultedinabroadcommunityofInternautsworkingtogethertocreateandevolvethetechnology.Andthereisthecommercializationaspect,resultinginanextremelyeffectivetransitionofresearchresultsintoabroadlydeployedandavailableinformationinfrastructure.
TheInternettodayisawidespreadinformationinfrastructure,theinitialprototypeofwhatisoftencalledtheNational(orGlobalorGalactic)InformationInfrastructure.Itshistoryiscomplexandinvolvesmanyaspects-technological,organizational,andcommunity.Anditsinfluencereachesnotonlytothetechnicalfieldsofcomputercommunicationsbutthroughoutsocietyaswemovetowardincreasinguseofonlinetoolstoaccomplishelectroniccommerce,informationacquisition,andcommunityoperations.
OriginsoftheInternet
ThefirstrecordeddescriptionofthesocialinteractionsthatcouldbeenabledthroughnetworkingwasaseriesofmemoswrittenbyJ.C.R.LickliderofMITinAugust1962discussinghis"
GalacticNetwork"
concept.Heenvisionedagloballyinterconnectedsetofcomputersthroughwhicheveryonecouldquicklyaccessdataandprogramsfromanysite.Inspirit,theconceptwasverymuchliketheInternetoftoday.LickliderwasthefirstheadofthecomputerresearchprogramatDARPA,4startinginOctober1962.WhileatDARPAheconvincedhissuccessorsatDARPA,IvanSutherland,BobTaylor,andMITresearcherLawrenceG.Roberts,oftheimportanceofthisnetworkingconcept.
LeonardKleinrockatMITpublishedthefirstpaperonpacketswitchingtheoryinJuly1961andthefirstbookonthesubjectin1964.KleinrockconvincedRobertsofthetheoreticalfeasibilityofcommunicationsusingpacketsratherthancircuits,whichwasamajorstepalongthepathtowardscomputernetworking.Theotherkeystepwastomakethecomputerstalktogether.Toexplorethis,in1965workingwithThomasMerrill,RobertsconnectedtheTX-2computerinMass.totheQ-32inCaliforniawithalowspeeddial-uptelephonelinecreatingthefirst(howeversmall)wide-areacomputernetworkeverbuilt.Theresultofthisexperimentwastherealizationthatthetime-sharedcomputerscouldworkwelltogether,runningprogramsandretrievingdataasnecessaryontheremotemachine,butthatthecircuitswitchedtelephonesystemwastotallyinadequateforthejob.Kleinrock'
sconvictionoftheneedforpacketswitchingwasconfirmed.
Inlate1966RobertswenttoDARPAtodevelopthecomputernetworkconceptandquicklyputtogetherhisplanforthe"
ARPANET"
publishingitin1967.Attheconferencewherehepresentedthepaper,therewasalsoapaperonapacketnetworkconceptfromtheUKbyDonaldDaviesandRogerScantleburyofNPL.ScantleburytoldRobertsabouttheNPLworkaswellasthatofPaulBaranandothersatRAND.TheRANDgrouphadwrittenapaperonpacketswitchingnetworksforsecurevoiceinthemilitaryin1964.IthappenedthattheworkatMIT(1961-1967),atRAND(1962-1965),andatNPL(1964-1967)hadallproceededinparallelwithoutanyoftheresearchersknowingabouttheotherwork.Theword"
packet"
wasadoptedfromtheworkatNPLandtheproposedlinespeedtobeusedintheARPANETdesignwasupgradedfrom2.4kbpsto50kbps.5
InAugust1968,afterRobertsandtheDARPAfundedcommunityhadrefinedtheoverallstructureandspecificationsfortheARPANET,anRFQwasreleasedbyDARPAforthedevelopmentofoneofthekeycomponents,thepacketswitchescalledInterfaceMessageProcessors(IMP'
s).TheRFQwaswoninDecember1968byagroupheadedbyFrankHeartatBoltBeranekandNewman(BBN).AstheBBNteamworkedontheIMP'
swithBobKahnplayingamajorroleintheoverallARPANETarchitecturaldesign,thenetworktopologyandeconomicsweredesignedandoptimizedbyRobertsworkingwithHowardFrankandhisteamatNetworkAnalysisCorporation,andthenetworkmeasurementsystemwaspreparedbyKleinrock'
steamatUCLA.6
DuetoKleinrock'
searlydevelopmentofpacketswitchingtheoryandhisfocusonanalysis,designandmeasurement,hisNetworkMeasurementCenteratUCLAwasselectedtobethefirstnodeontheARPANET.AllthiscametogetherinSeptember1969whenBBNinstalledthefirstIMPatUCLAandthefirsthostcomputerwasconnected.DougEngelbart'
sprojecton"
AugmentationofHumanIntellect"
(whichincludedNLS,anearlyhypertextsystem)atStanfordResearchInstitute(SRI)providedasecondnode.SRIsupportedtheNetworkInformationCenter,ledbyElizabeth(Jake)FeinlerandincludingfunctionssuchasmaintainingtablesofhostnametoaddressmappingaswellasadirectoryoftheRFC'
s.Onemonthlater,whenSRIwasconnectedtotheARPANET,thefirsthost-to-hostmessagewassentfromKleinrock'
slaboratorytoSRI.TwomorenodeswereaddedatUCSantaBarbaraandUniversityofUtah.Theselasttwonodesincorporatedapplicationvisualizationprojects,withGlenCullerandBurtonFriedatUCSBinvestigatingmethodsfordisplayofmathematicalfunctionsusingstoragedisplaystodealwiththeproblemofrefreshoverthenet,andRobertTaylorandIvanSutherlandatUtahinvestigatingmethodsof3-Drepresentationsoverthenet.Thus,bytheendof1969,fourhostcomputerswereconnectedtogetherintotheinitialARPANET,andthebuddingInternetwasofftheground.Evenatthisearlystage,itshouldbenotedthatthenetworkingresearchincorporatedbothworkontheunderlyingnetworkandworkonhowtoutilizethenetwork.Thistraditioncontinuestothisday.
ComputerswereaddedquicklytotheARPANETduringthefollowingyears,andworkproceededoncompletingafunctionallycompleteHost-to-Hostprotocolandothernetworksoftware.InDecember1970theNetworkWorkingGroup(NWG)workingunderS.CrockerfinishedtheinitialARPANETHost-to-Hostprotocol,calledtheNetworkControlProtocol(NCP).AstheARPANETsitescompletedimplementingNCPduringtheperiod1971-1972,thenetworkusersfinallycouldbegintodevelopapplications.
InOctober1972Kahnorganizedalarge,verysuccessfuldemonstrationoftheARPANETattheInternationalComputerCommunicationConference(ICCC).Thiswasthefirstpublicdemonstrationofthisnewnetworktechnologytothepublic.Itwasalsoin1972thattheinitial"
hot"
application,electronicmail,wasintroduced.InMarchRayTomlinsonatBBNwrotethebasicemailmessagesendandreadsoftware,motivatedbytheneedoftheARPANETdevelopersforaneasycoordinationmechanism.InJuly,Robertsexpandeditsutilitybywritingthefirstemailutilityprogramtolist,selectivelyread,file,forward,andrespondtomessages.Fromthereemailtookoffasthelargestnetworkapplicationforoveradecade.ThiswasaharbingerofthekindofactivityweseeontheWorldWideWebtoday,namely,theenormousgrowthofallkindsof"
people-to-people"
traffic.
TheInitialInternettingConcepts
TheoriginalARPANETgrewintotheInternet.Internetwasbasedontheideathattherewouldbemultipleindependentnetworksofratherarbitrarydesign,beginningwiththeARPANETasthepioneeringpacketswitchingnetwork,butsoontoincludepacketsatellitenetworks,ground-basedpacketradionetworksandothernetworks.TheInternetaswenowknowitembodiesakeyunderlyingtechnicalidea,namelythatofopenarchitecturenetworking.Inthisapproach,thechoiceofanyindividualnetworktechnologywasnotdictatedbyaparticularnetworkarchitect
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