拉斯韦尔社会传播的结构与功能Word文档格式.docx
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拉斯韦尔社会传播的结构与功能Word文档格式.docx
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WhoSaysWhatInWhichChannelToWhomWithWhatEffect?
Thescientificstudyoftheprocessofcommunicationtendstoconcentrateupononeoranotherofthesequestions.Scholarswhostudythe"
who,"
thecommunicator,lookintothefactors
thatinitiateandguidetheactofcommunication.Wecallthissubdivisionofthefieldofresearchcontrolanalysis.Specialistswhofocusuponthe"
sayswhat"
engageincontentanalysis.Thosewholookprimarilyattheradio,press,film,andotherchannelsofcommunicationaredoingmediaanalysis(p.84).Whentheprincipalconcerniswiththepersonsreachedbythemedia,wespeakofaudienceanalysis.Ifthequestionistheimpactuponaudiences,theproblemiseffectanalysis.
Whethersuchdistinctionsareusefuldependsentirelyuponthedegreeofrefinementwhichisregardedasappropriatetoagivenscientificandmanagerialobjective.Oftenitissimplertocombineaudienceandeffectanalysis,forinstance,thantokeepthemapart.Ontheotherhand,wemaywanttoconcentrateontheanalysisofcontent,andforthispurposesubdividethefieldintothestudyofpurportandstyle,thefirstreferringtothemessage,andthesecondtothearrangementoftheelementsofwhichthemessageiscomposed.
Structureandfunction
Enticingasitistoworkoutthesecategoriesinmoredetail,thepresentdiscussionhasadifferentscope.Wearelessinterestedindividinguptheactofcommunicationthaninviewingtheactasawholeinrelationtotheentiresocialprocess.Anyprocesscanbeexaminedintwoframesofreference,namely,structureandfunction;
andouranalysisofcommunicationwill
dealwiththespecializationsthatcarryoncertainfunctions,ofwhichthefollowingmaybeclearlydistinguished:
(i)thesurveillanceoftheenvironment;
(2)thecorrelationofthepartsofsocietyinrespondingtotheenvironment;
(3)thetransmissionofthesocialheritagefromonegenerationtothenext.
Biologicalequivalences
Attheriskofcallingupfalseanalogies,wecangainperspectiveonhumansocietieswhenwenotethedegreetowhichcommunicationisafeatureoflifeateverylevel.Avitalentity,whetherrelativelyisolatedorinassociation,hasspecializedwaysofreceivingstimulifromtheenvironment.Thesingle-celledorganismorthemany-memberedgrouptendstomaintainaninternalequilibriumandtorespondtochangesintheenvironmentinawaythatmaintainsthisequilibrium.Therespondingprocesscallsforspecializedwaysofbringingthepartsofthewholeintoharmoniousaction(p.85).Multi-celledanimalsspecializecellstothefunctionofexternalcontactandinternalcorrelation.Thus,amongtheprimates,specializationisexemplifiedbyorganssuchastheearandeye,andthenervoussystemitself.Whenthestimulireceivinganddisseminatingpatternsoperatesmoothly,theseveralpartsoftheanimalactinconcertinreferencetotheenvironment("
feeding,"
"
fleeing,"
attacking"
).
Insomeanimalsocietiescertainmembersperformspecializedroles,andsurveytheenvironment.Individualsactas"
sentinels,"
standingapartfromtheherdorflockandcreatingadisturbancewheneveranalarmingchangeoccursinthesurroundings.Thetrumpeting,cackling,orshrillingofthesentinelisenoughtosettheherdinmotion.Amongtheactivitiesengagedinbyspecialized"
leaders"
istheinternalstimulationof"
followers"
toadaptinanorderlymannertothecircumstancesheraldedbythesentinels.
Withinasingle,highlydifferentiatedorganism,incomingnervousimpulsesandoutgoingimpulsesaretransmittedalongfibersthatmakesynapticjunctionwithotherfibers.Thecriticalpointsintheprocessoccurattherelaystations,wherethearrivingimpulsemaybetooweaktoreachthethresholdwhichstirsthenextlinkintoaction.Atthehighercenters,separatecurrentsmodifyoneanother,producingresultsthatdifferinmanywaysfromtheoutcomewheneachisallowedtocontinueaseparatepath.Atanyrelaystationthereisnoconductance,totalconductance,orintermediateconductance.Thesame
an
categoriesapplytowhatgoesonamongmembersofanimalsociety.Theslyfoxmayapproachthebarnyardinawaythatsuppliestoomeagerstimuliforthesentineltosoundthealarm.Ortheattackinganimalmayeliminatethesentinelbeforehemakesmorethanafeebleoutcry.Obviouslythereiseverygradationpossiblebetweentotalconductanceandnoconductance(p.86).
AttentioninWorldSociety
Whenweexaminetheprocessofcommunicationofanystateintheworldcommunity,wenotethreecategoriesofspecialists.Onegroupsurveysthepoliticalenvironmentofthestateasawhole,anothercorrelatestheresponseofthewholestatetotheenvironment,andthethirdtransmitscertainpatternsofresponsefromtheoldtotheyoung.Diplomats,attaches,andforeigncorrespondentsarerepresentativeofthosewhospecializeontheenvironment.Editors,journalists,andspeakersarecorrelatorsoftheinternalresponse.Educatorsin
familyandschooltransmitthesocialinheritance.
Communicationswhichoriginateabroadpassthroughsequencesinwhichvarioussendersandreceiversarelinkedwithoneanother.Subjecttomodificationateachrelaypointinthechain,messagesoriginatingwithadiplomatorforeigncorrespondentmaypassthrougheditorialdesksandeventuallyreachlargeaudiences.
Ifwethinkoftheworldattentionprocessasaseriesofattentionframes,itispossibletodescribetherateatwhichcomparablecontentisbroughttothenoticeofindividualsandgroups.Wecaninquireintothepointatwhich"
conductance"
nolongeroccurs;
andwecanlookintotherangebetween"
totalconductance"
and"
minimumconductance."
Themetropolitanandpoliticalcentersoftheworldhavemuchincommonwiththeinterdependence,differentiation,andactivityofthecorticalorsubcorticalcentersofanindividualorganism.Hencetheattentionframesfoundinthesespotsarethemostvariable,refined,andinteractiveofallframesintheworldcommunity.
Attheotherextremearetheattentionframesofprimitiveinhabitantsofisolatedareas.Notthatfolkculturesarewhollyuntouchedbyindustrialcivilization.WhetherweparachuteintotheinteriorofNewGuinea,orlandontheslopesoftheHimalayas,wefindnotribewhollyoutofcontactwiththeworld.Thelongthreadsoftrade,ofmissionaryzeal,ofadventurousexplorationandscientificfieldstudy,andofglobalwarreachfardistantplaces.Nooneisentirelyoutofthisworld(p.87).
Amongprimitivesthefinalshapetakenbycommunicationistheballadortale.Remotehappeningsinthegreatworldofaffairs,happeningsthatcometothenoticeofmetropolitanaudiences,arereflected,howeverdimly,inthethematicmaterialofballadsingersandreciters.Inthesecreationsfarawaypoliticalleadersmaybeshownsupplyinglandtothepeasantsorrestoringanabundanceofgametothehills.
Whenwepushupstreamoftheflowofcommunication,wenotethattheimmediaterelayfunctionfornomadicandremotetribesmenissometimesperformedbytheinhabitantsofsettledvillageswithwhomtheycomeinoccasionalcontact.There-layercanbetheschoolteacher,doctor,judge,taxcollector,policeman,soldier,peddler,salesman,missionary,student;
inanycaseheisanassemblypointofnewsandcomment.
Moredetailedequivalences
Thecommunicationprocessesofhumansociety,whenexaminedindetail,revealmanyequivalencestothespecializationsfoundinthephysicalorganismandintheloweranimalsocieties.Thediplomats,forinstance,ofasinglestatearestationedallovertheworldandsendmessagestoafewfocalpoints.Obviously,theseincomingreportsmovefromthemanytothefew,wheretheyinteractupononeanother.Lateron,thesequencespreadsfanwiseaccordingtoafew-to-manypattern,aswhenaforeignsecretarygivesaspeechinpublic,anarticleisputoutinthepress,oranewsfilmisdistributedtothetheaters.Thelinesleadingfromtheouterenvironmentofthestatearefunctionallyequivalenttotheafferentchannelsthatconveyincomingnervousimpulsestothecentralnervoussystemofasingleanimal,andtothemeansbywhichalarmisspreadamongaflock.Outgoing,orefferent,impulsesdisplaycorrespondingparallels.
Thecentralnervoussystemofthebodyisonlypartlyinvolvedintheentireflowofafferent-efferentimpulses.Thereareautomaticsystemsthatcanactononeanotherwithoutinvolvingthe"
higher"
centersatall(p.88).Thestabilityoftheinternalenvironmentismaintainedprincipallythroughthemediationofthevegetiveorautonomicspecializationsofthenervoussystem.Similarly,mostofthemessageswithinanystatedonotinvolvethecentralchannelsofcommunication.Theytakeplacewithinfamilies,neighborhoods,shops,fieldgangs,andotherlocalcontexts.Mostoftheeducationalprocessiscarriedonthesameway.
Afurthersetofsignificantequivalencesisrelatedtothecircuitsofcommunication,whicharepredominantlyone-wayortwo-way,dependinguponthedegreeofreciprocitybetweencommunicatorsandaudience.Or,toexpressitdifferently,two-waycommunicationoccurswhenthesendingandreceivingfunctionsareperformedwithequalfrequencybytwoormorepersons.Aconversationisusuallyassumedtobeapatternoftwo-waycommunication(althoughmonologuesarehardlyunknown).Themoderninstrumentsofmasscommunicationgiveanenormousadvantagetothecontrollersofprintingplants,broadcastingequipment,andotherformsoffixedandspecializedcapital.Butitshould
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