纽约时报英文版自己整理的Word文档下载推荐.docx
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纽约时报英文版自己整理的Word文档下载推荐.docx
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“Wenowhaveanincredibleconcentrationofpowerinthehandsofprosecutors,”saidRichardE.MyersII,aformerassistantUnitedStatesattorneywhoisnowanassociateprofessoroflawattheUniversityofNorthCarolina.Hesaidthatsomuchinfluencenowresideswithprosecutorsthat“inthewronghands,thecriminaljusticesystemcanbeheldhostage.”
Onecrucial,ifunheralded,effectofthisshiftisnowcomingintosharperview,accordingtoacademicswhostudytheissue.Growingprosecutorialpowerisasignificantreasonthatthepercentageoffelonycasesthatgototrialhasdroppedsharplyinmanyplaces.
Pleabargainshavebeencommonformorethanacentury,butlatelytheyhavebeguntoputthetrialsystemoutofbusinessinsomecourtrooms.Byonecount,fewerthanonein40felonycasesnowmakeittotrial,accordingtodatafromninestatesthathavepublishedsuchrecordssincethe1970s,whentheratiowasaboutonein12.Thedeclinehasbeenevensteeperinfederaldistrictcourts.
CaseslikeFloridav.ShaneGuthriehelpexplainwhy.AfterMr.Guthrie,24,wasarrestedherelastyear,accusedofbeatinghisgirlfriendandthreateningherwithaknife,theprosecutorofferedhimadealfortwoyearsinprisonplusprobation.
Mr.Guthrierejectedthat,andalaterofferoffiveyears,becausehebelievedthathewasnotguilty,hislawyersaid.Buttheprosecutor’sresponsewassevere:
hefiledamoreseriouschargethatwouldmeanlifeimprisonmentifMr.Guthrieisconvictedlaterthisyear.
Becauseofastatelawthatincreasedpunishmentsforpeoplewhohadrecentlybeeninprison,likeMr.Guthrie,thesentencewouldbemandatory.Sowhathecouldhaveresolvedforatwo-yeartermcouldkeephimlockedupfor50yearsormore.
Thedecreaseintrialshasalsobeenaconsequenceofunderfinancedpublicdefenselawyerswhocantryonlyahandfuloftheircases,aswellas,prosecutorssay,theriseofdrugcourtsandotheralternativeresolutions.
Theoverloadedcourtsystemhasalsoseencomparativelylittleexpansioninmanyplaces,makingahugeincreaseinpleabargainsacheapandeasywaytohandleanear-triplinginfelonycasesoverthepastgeneration.
Butmanyresearcherssaythemostimportantforceindrivingdownthetrialratehasbeenstateandfederallegislativeoverhaulsthatimposedmandatorysentencesandotherharsherandmorecertainpenaltiesformanyfelonies,especiallythoseinvolvingguns,drugs,violentcrimesandrepeatoffenders.
Stifferpunishmentswerealsoputinplaceforspecificcrimes,likepeddlingdrugsnearaschoolorwearingamaskincertaincircumstances.Andlegislatorsaddedreamsofnewfelonystatutes,vastlyexpandingtherangeofactionsconsideredillegal.
Thesetougherpenalties,bymanyaccounts,havecontributedtothenation’ssteepdropincrimethepasttwodecades.Theyhavealsoswelledtheprisonpopulationtolevelsthatlawmakersinsomestatessaytheycannolongerafford,andafewhaverolledbacksomelaws.
The‘TrialPenalty’
Inthecourtroomandduringpleanegotiations,theimpactofthesestricterlawsisexertedthroughwhatacademicscallthe“trialpenalty.”Thephrasereferstothefactthatthesentencesforpeoplewhogototrialhavegrownharsherrelativetosentencesforthosewhoagreetoaplea.
Insomejurisdictions,thisgaphaswidenedsomuchithasbecomecoerciveandisusedtopunishdefendantsforexercisingtheirrighttotrial,somelegalexpertssay.
“Legislatorswanttomakeiteasyforprosecutorstogettheconvictionwithouthavingtogototrial,”saidRachelBarkow,aprofessoroflawatNewYorkUniversitywhostudieshowprosecutorsusetheirpower.“Andprosecutorswhoarestarvedforresourceswanttousethatleverage.Andsonoweveryoneactswiththeassumptionthatthecaseshouldendwithaplea.”
“Whenyouhavethatattitude,”shesaid,“youpenalizepeoplewhohavethenervetogototrial.”
Prosecutorssaytheyaregivingdefendantsoptionsandaremerelychargingthembasedonwhatisallowedunderthelawforthosewhoturndownpleas.
Whilelegalexpertssaytheeffectisclearinpersuadingmoredefendantstoforgotrials,thetrialpenaltyishardtoquantifywithoutexaminingindividualcasesandnegotiationsbetweenprosecutorsanddefenselawyers.
Thatisbecausethreatsofharsherchargesagainstdefendantswhorejectpleadealsoftenarethemostinfluentialfactorintheoutcomeofacase,butthisinterplayisneverreflectedinofficialdata.
“Howmanytimesisamandatorysentenceusedasachipinordertocoerceaplea?
Theydon’tkeeprecords,”saidSeniorJudgeJohnL.KaneJr.ofUnitedStatesDistrictCourtinDenver,whobelievesthatprosecutorshavegrownmorepowerfulthanjudges.Butitisverycommon,headded.“That’swhatthepublicdoesn’tsee,andwherethestatisticsbecomemeaningless.”
Butoneresultisobvious,hesaid:
“Wehardlyhavetrialsanymore.”
In1977,theyearJudgeKanewasappointedtothebench,theratioofguiltypleastocriminaltrialverdictsinfederaldistrictcourtswasalittlemorethanfourtoone;
bylastyear,itwasalmost32toone.
HereinFlorida,whichhasgreatlytoughenedsentencingsincethe1990s,felonydefendantswhooptfortrialnowroutinelyfacetheprospectofhigherchargesthatmeanprisonterms2,5,oreven20timesaslongasiftheyhadpleadedguilty.Inmanycases,theprocessisreversed,andstifferchargesaredismissedinreturnforaplea.
Beforenewsentencinglaws,thegapwasnarrower,andtrialslessrisky,veteranlawyersheresay.ThefirstthingDenisdeVlaming,aprominentFloridacriminaldefenselawyer,doeswithanewclientispulloutacalculatortotallyalltheadditionalpunishmentstheprosecutorcanaddtofigurethelikelysentenceiftheclientisconvictedattrial.
“TheythinkI’mreadytochargethemafee,butI’mnot,”hesaid.“ItelltheminFlorida,it’sjusticebymathematics.”
Nomatterhowstronglydefendantsbelievetheyareinnocent,hesaid,theycouldbetakingdangerousrisksby,forexample,turningdownaone-yearpleabargainwhentheprosecutorthreatensadditionalchargesthatcarryamandatorysentence10timesaslong.
APowerShift
Thetransferofpowertoprosecutorsfromjudgeshasbeensoprofoundthatanimportanttrialritualhasbecomeinsomemeasurealie,Mr.deVlamingsaid—theinstructionsjudgesreadstatingthatthejurydeterminesguiltorinnocence,andthejudgeapropersentence.Thelatterpartisnolongertruewhenmandatoryminimumsand,inmanycases,sentencingguidelinesapply,butjurorsoftendonotknowthat.
LegalscholarslikePaulCassell,aconservativeformerfederaljudgeandprosecutorwhoisnowalawprofessorattheUniversityofUtah,describethepowershiftasazero-sumgame.
“Judgeshavelostdiscretion,andthatdiscretionhasaccumulatedinthehandsofprosecutors,whonowhavetheultimateabilitytoshapetheoutcome,”Mr.Cassellsaid.“Withmandatoryminimumsandothersentencingenhancementsoutthere,prosecutorscanoftendictatethesentencethatwillbeimposed.”
Withoutquestion,pleabargainsbenefitmanydefendantswhohavecommittedcrimesandreceivelightersentencesthantheymightaftertrial.Italsolimitscasesthatrequireconsiderabletimeandexpenseincourt.
Butmanydefendantswhooptfortrialeffectivelyfacemoreprisontimeforrejectingapleathanforcommittingtheallegedcrime.
InMr.Guthrie’scase,hewasinitiallychargedwithaggravatedbatteryonapregnantwomanandfalseimprisonment.Butafterherejectedthepleabargains,theprosecutor,morethanayearlater,filedthemoreseriouschargeoffirst-degreefelonykidnapping,basedonthegirlfriend’saccusationthathepulledherbythearminsideherhomeand,onceoutside,grabbedherhairandpulledheronherfeetthedistanceofseveralparkingspaces.
NobodyissuggestingthatMr.Guthrie,previouslyincarceratedfor18monthsongun,assaultanddrugcharges,isasympatheticfigure.Accordingtoapolicereport,hepunchedandkickedhisgirlfriend,leftherwithabruisedandbloodynoseandafacethat“appearedtobeswollen,”andthreatenedtocutherstomachwithaknife.
Theassistantstateattorneyhandlingthecase,FrankSlavichak,didnotreturncalls.Thechiefinvestigatorfortheoffice,SpencerMann,saidMr.Guthrie’schoicesdictatedthecourseofthecase.
Buthislawyer,CraigDeThomasis,hiredaftertheplearejections,saidhewas“plainlybeingpunishedforexercisinghisrighttotrial.”AccordingtoMr.Guthrie’smother,ClaudiaGuthrie,theprosecutortoldhersonatahearingthisspringthatifhedidnotpleadguiltyandtakeafive-yearsentence,higherchargeswouldbefiledthatmean“you’regoingtogetlife.”Mr.Manndidnotdisputethatsomesortofwarningofnewchargeswaspresented.
Mr.DeThomasissaidthattherewasnoevidencethegirlfriendwaspregnant,andthatshestartedthealtercationbyhittinghimintheforeheadwithapipe,landinghiminthejailinfirmaryforaweek.He
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