New Media from Borges to HTMLLev ManovichWord格式文档下载.docx
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IntroductiontoTheNewMediaReader,editedbyNoahWardrip-FruinandNickMontfort,TheMITPress,2003,
NewMediaField:
aShortInstitutionalHistory
TheappearanceofNewMediaReaderisamilestoneinthehistoryanewfieldthat,justafewyearsago,wassomewhatofaculturalunderground.Beforetakingupthetheoreticalchallengeofdefiningwhatnewmediaactuallyis,aswellasdiscussingtheparticularcontributionsthisreadermakestoansweringthisquestion,Iwouldlikeverybrieflytosketchthehistoryofthefieldforthebenefitofwhosewhoarenewcomerstoit.
Ifwearetolookatanymodernculturalfieldsociologically,measuringitsstandingbythenumberandtheimportanceofculturalinstitutionsdevotedtoitsuchasmuseumexhibitions,festivals,publications,conferences,andsoon,wecansaythatinthecaseofnewmedia(understoodascomputer-basedartisticactivities)ittookabouttenyearsforittomovefromculturalperipherytothemainstream.AlthoughSIGGRAPHintheU.S.andArsElectronicainAustriahavealreadyactedasannualgatheringplacesofartistsworkingwithcomputerssincethelate1970s,thenewmediafieldbegintotakerealshapeonlyintheendofthe1980s.Attheendofthe1990snewinstitutionsdevotedtotheproductionandsupportfornewmediaartarefoundedinEurope:
ZKMinKarlsruhe(1989),NewMediaInstituteinFrankfurt(1990)andISEA(Inter-SocietyfortheElectronicArts)intheNetherlands(1990).(JeffreyShawwasappointedtobedirectorofthepartofZKMfocusedonvisualmediawhileFrankfurtInstitutewasheadedbyPeterWeibel).In1990aswell,IntercommunicationCenterinTokyobeginsitsactivitiesinnewmediaart(itmovesintoitsownbuildingin1997).Throughoutthe1990s,EuropeandJapanremainedtobethebestplacestoseenewmediaworkandtoparticipateinhigh-leveldiscussionsofthenewfield.FestivalssuchasISEA,ArsElectronica,DEAFhavebeenrequiredplacesofpilgrimageforinteractiveinstallationartists,computermusicians,choreographersworkingwithcomputers,mediacurators,critics,and,sincethemid1990s,netartists.
Asitwasoftenthecasethroughoutthetwentiethcentury,countriesotherthantheStateswouldbefirsttocriticallyengagewithnewtechnologiesdevelopedanddeployedintheU.S.Thereareafewwaystoexplainthisphenomenon.Firstly,thespeedwithwhichnewtechnologiesareassimilatedintheU.S.makesthem“invisible”almostovernight:
theybecomeanassumedpartoftheeverydayexistence,somethingwhichdoesnotseemtorequiremuchreflectionabout.Themoreslowspeedofassimilationandthehighercostgivesothercountriesmoretimetoreflectuponnewtechnologies,asitwasthecasewithnewmediaandtheInternetinthe1990s.InthecaseofInternet,bytheendofthe1990sitbecameascommonplaceintheU.S.asthetelephone,whileinEuropeInternetstillremainedaphenomenontoreflectupon,bothforeconomicreasons(intheU.S.subscriberswouldplayverylowmonthlyflatfee;
inEuropetheyhadtopaybytheminute)andforculturalreasons(moreskepticalattitudetowardsnewtechnologiesinmanyEuropeancountrieswhichslowsdowntheirassimilation).(Sowhenintheearly1990sSorosFoundationhassetupcontemporaryartcentersthroughouttheEasternEurope,itwiselygavethemamandatetofocustheiractivitiesonnewmediaart,bothinordertosupportyoungerartistswhohaddifficultygettingaroundthemoreestablished“artmafia”inthesecountries;
andalsoinordertointroducegeneralpublictotheInternet.)
Secondly,wecanexplaintheslownessoftheU.S.engagementwithnewmediaartduringthe1990sbytheveryminimallevelofthepublicsupportfortheartsthere.InEurope,Japan,andAustralia,festivalsformediaandnewmediaartsuchastheonesImentionedabove,thecommissionsforartiststocreatesuchwork,exhibitioncatalogsandotherrelatedculturalactivitieswerefundedbythegovernments.IntheU.S.thelackofgovernmentfundingfortheartsleftonlytwoculturalplayerswhicheconomicallycouldhavesupportedcreativeworkinnewmedia:
anti-intellectual,marketandcliché
drivencommercialmasscultureandequallycommercialartculture(i.e.,theartmarket).Fordifferentreasons,neitheroftheseplayerswouldsupportnewmediaartnorwoulditfosterintellectualdiscourseaboutit.Outofthetwo,commercialculture(inotherwords,culturedesignedformassaudiences)hasplayedamoreprogressiveroleinadoptingandexperimentingwithnewmedia,eventhoughforobviousreasonsthecontentofcommercialnewmediaproductshadseverelimits.YetwithoutcommercialculturewewouldnothavecomputergamesusingArtificialIntelligenceprogramming,network-basedmultimedia,includingvariousWebplug-inswhichenabledistributionofmusic,movingimagesand3-DenvironmentovertheWeb,sophisticated3-Dmodeling,animationandrenderingtools,database-drivenWebsites,CD-ROMs,DVD,andotherstorageformats,andmostotheradvancednewmediatechnologiesandforms.
The1990sU.S.artworldprovedtobethemostconservativeculturalforceincontemporarysociety,laggingbehindtherestofculturalandsocialinstitutionsindealingwithnewmediatechnologies.(Inthe1990sastandardjokeatnewmediafestivalswasthatanewmediapiecerequirestwointerfaces:
oneforartcurators,andoneforeverybodyelse).Thisresistanceisunderstandablegiventhatthelogicoftheartworldandthelogicofnewmediaareexactopposites.Thefirstisbasedtheromanticideaofauthorshipwhichassumesasingleauthor;
thenotionofaunique,oneofakindartobject;
andthecontroloverthedistributionofsuchobjectswhichtakesplacethroughasetofexclusiveplaces:
galleries,museums,actions).Thesecondprivilegestheexistenceofpotentiallynumerouscopies,infinitelylargenumberofdifferentstatesofthesamework,author-usersymbiosis(theusercanchangetheworkthroughinteractivity),thecollective,collaborativeauthorship,andnetworkdistribution(whichbypassestheartsystemdistributionchannels).Moreover,exhibitionofnewmediarequiresaleveloftechnicalsophisticationandcomputerequipmentwhichneitherU.S.Museumsnorgallerieswereabletoprovideinthe1990s.Incontrast,inEuropegenerousfederalandregionalfundingallowednotonlyformountingsofsophisticatedexhibitionsbutalsoforthedevelopmentofawholenewformofart:
interactivecomputerinstallation.Itistruethataftermanyyearsofitsexistence,theU.S.artworldlearnedhowtodealwithandinfactfullyembracedvideoinstallation,butvideoinstallationsrequiresstandardizedequipmentandtheydon’tdemandconstantmonitoring,asitisthecasewithinteractiveinstallationsandevenwithWebpieces.WhileinEuropeequipment-intensiveformofinteractiveinstallationhasflourishedthroughoutthe1990s,U.S.artworldhastakenaneasywaybyfocusingon“netart”i.e.Web-basedpieceswhoseexhibitiondoesnotrequiremuchresourcesbeyondaoff-the-shelfcomputerandaNetconnection.
Allthisstartedtochangewiththeincreasingspeedbytheendofthe1990s.VariousculturalinstitutionsintheU.S.finallybeguntopayattentiontonewmedia.Thefirstwereeducationinstitutions.Around1995Universitiesandtheartschools,particularlyontheWestCoast,begintoinitiateprograminnewmediaartanddesignaswellasopenfacultypositionsintheseareas;
bythebeginningofthenewdecade,practicallyeveryUniversityandartschoolontheWestCoasthadbothundergraduateandgraduateprogramsinnewmedia.AcoupleofyearslatermuseumssuchasWalkerArtCenterbeguntomountanumberofimpressiveonlineexhibitionsandstartedtocommissiononlineprojects.2000WhitneyBiannualincludedaroomdedicatedtonetart(eventhoughitspresentationconceptuallywasagesbehindthepresentationofnewmediainsuchplacesasArsElectronicaCenterinLinz,IntercommunicationCenterinTokyo,orZKMinGermany).Finallyin2001,bothWhitneyMuseuminNewYorkandSanFranciscoMuseumofModernart(SFMOMA)havemountedlargesurveyexhibitionsofnewmediaart(BitstreamsattheWhitney,010101:
ArtinTechnologicalTimesatSFMOMA).AddtothisconstantflowofconferencesandworkshopsmountedinsuchbastionsofAmericanAcademiaastheInstituteforAdvancedStudiesinPrinceton;
fellowshipsinnewmediainitiatedbysuchprestigiousfundingbodiesasRockefellerFoundationandSocialScienceResearchCouncil(bothwerestartedin2001);
bookseriesonnewmediapublishedbysuchwell-respectedpressesastheMITPress(thisbookisapartofsuchaseries).Whattenyearsagowasaculturalundergroundbecameanestablishedacademicandartisticfield;
whathasemergedfromonthegroundinteractionsofindividualplayershassolidified,matured,andacquiredinstitutionalforms.
Paradoxically,atthesametimeasnewmediafieldhasstartedtomature(theendofthe1990s),itsveryreasonforexistencecametobethreatened.Ifallartistsnow,regardlessoftheirpreferredmedia,alsoroutinelyusedigitalcomputerstocreate,modifyandproduceworks,doweneedtohaveaspecialfieldofnewmediaart?
Asdigitalandnetworkmediaarerapidlybecameanomni-presenceinoursociety,andasmostartistscametoroutinelyuseit,newmediafieldisfacingadangerofbecomingaghettowhoseparticipantswouldbeunitedbytheirfetishismoflatestcomputertechnology,ratherthanbyanydeeperconceptual,ideologicaloraestheticissues–akindoflocalclubforphotoenthusiasts.Ipersonallydothinkthattheexistenceofaseparatenewmediafieldnowandint
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