linguistics a course bookWord格式文档下载.docx
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2.3.2Phonemes
Phonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechproductionsystem.
Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.
Crystal:
'
Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot'
.not'
MinimalpairstestPhonemes
Theword'
phoneme'
simplyreferstoa'
unitphoneme'
ofexplicitsoundcontrast'
:
theexistenceofacontrast'
minimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.
Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.Languagesdifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.InEnglish,thedistinctionbetweenaspirated[ph]andunaspirated[p]isnotphonemic.phonemic.InChinese,however,thedistinctionbetween/p/and/ph/isphonemic.
Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(//)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets([]).Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthe'
broad'
transcriptions.broad'
2..3.3Allophones
[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:
[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces./p/→[p]/[s]_____[ph]elsewhere
Thisphenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.variation.Velarization:
Velarization:
clearlanddarkl//→[]/_____V[]/V_____Thinkabouttellandtelling!
Phoneticsimilarity:
theallophonesofasimilarity:
phonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Freevariantsandfreevariation
2.4.Phonologicalprocesses,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeatures
2.4.1Assimilation
Nasalization,dentalization,Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbyassimilation,whichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.
Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.assimilation.Theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation.assimilation.EnglishFricativeDevoicing/v/[f]/z/[s]etc.voicedfricativevoiceless/____voicelessNasalizationrule:
[-nasal][+nasal]/____[+nasal]Dentalizationrule:
[-dental][dental]/____[dental]Velarizationrule:
[-velar][+velar]/____[+velar]
2.4.2Epenthesis,ruleorderingandtheElsewhereCondition
Ahotel,aboy,ause,awagon,abigman,ayellowrug,awhitehouseanapple,anhonor,anorangecurtain,anoldladyEpenthesis(Insertion)Rule:
PluralsinEnglisha.The[]appearsaftervoicelesssounds.b.The[]appearsaftervoicedsounds.c.The[]appearsaftersibilants.//→[]/[–voice,C]_____(Devoicing)[–→[]/[+sibilant]_____[](Epenthesis)
RuleorderingTheElsewhereConditionThemorespecificruleappliesfirst.
2.4.3Distinctivefeatures
TheideaofDistinctiveFeatureswasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobson(1896-1982)(1896inthe1940sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Sincethenseveralversionshavebeensuggested.suggested.
Someofthemajordistinctionsinclude[consonantal],[sonorant],[nasal]and[voiced].Thefeature[consonantal]candistinguishbetweenconsonantsandvowels,soallconsonantsare[+consonantal]andallvowels[–consonantal].[–[sonorant]distinguishesbetweenwhatwecallobstruents(stops,fricativesandaffricates)andsonorants(allotherconsonantsandvowels),withobstruentsbeing[–sonorant]andothers[–[+sonorant].[nasal]and[voiced]ofcoursedistinguishnasal(includingnasalized)soundsandvoicedsoundsrespectively.
Theseareknownasbinaryfeaturesbecausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:
onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.Binaryfeatureshavetwovaluesorspecificationsdenotedby'
+'
and'
–'
sovoicedobstruentsaremarked[+voiced]andvoicelessobstruentsaremarked[–voiced].[–Theplacefeaturesarenotbinaryfeatures–theyaredividedupintofourvalues:
[PLACE:
Labial][PLACE:
Coronal][PLACE:
Dorsal][PLACE:
Radical]Theyareoftenwritteninshorthandformsas[Labial]p[Coronal]p[Dorsal]p[Radical]p
Ausefulfeatureforconsonantsnotfoundhereis[±
spread](for'
spreadglottis'
),[±
glottis'
whichdistinguishesbetween'
aspirated'
andaspirated'
unaspirated'
voicelessobstruents.unaspirated'
Aspiratedsoundsare[+spread]andunaspiratedsoundsare[–spread].[–Nowwecanrepresenttherulethatgovernstheunaspirationof/p/after[s]intermsoffeatures:
-cont-voice→[–spread]/[s]_____→[+spread]inotherplacesThisisamoregeneralrule,whichalsoappliesto/t/and/k/.Itmeansthat/p,t,k/([–voiced,–cont])areallunaspirated([–([–spread])after[s]andaspirated([–([+spread])inallotherpositions.
PasttenseformsinEnglish
stopped,walked,coughed,kissed,leashed,reachedstabbed,wagged,achieved,buzzed,soothed,bridgedsteamed,stunned,pulledplayed,flowed,studiedwanted,located,decided,guided
TheregularpasttenseforminEnglishispronouncedas[t]whenthewordendswithavoicelessconsonant,[d]whenitendswithavoicedsound,and[d]whenitendswith[[t]or[d].
2.5.Suprasegmentals
Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:
2.5.1Thesyllablestructure
σOnsetRimeNucleuskrkCodatOpensyllable:
bar,tieClosedsyllable:
bard,tiedEnglishSyllable:
(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:
(C)V(C)MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)
Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.
2.5.2Stress
Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[│]isoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.
Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables,theformerbeingmoreprominentthanthelatter,whichmeansthatstressisarelativenotion.
Atthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables.Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.
ChangingEnglishStressPatternBecomingnorminTEGralcoMMUNalforMIDableconTROVersyConsideredconservativeINtegralCOMMunalFORmidableCONtroversyRPvs.GARPlaBORatoryDEBrisGARageGALABoratorydeBRISgaRAGEVvs.N
VerbconVICTinSULTproDUCEreBELNounCONvictINsultPROduceREbel
Compoundvs.PhraseCompoundBLACKboardBLACKbirdPhraseblackBOARDblackBIRD
Primaryvs.SecondaryStressepiphenomenalunsatisfactorydiscriminationstandardizationcommunicationindustrialization
SentenceStressJohnboughtaredcar.JOHNboughtaredcar.JohnBOUGHTaredcar.JohnboughtaREDcar.JohnboughtaredCAR.CAR.
2.5.3Intonation
Intonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisfallusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Forexample,thefall-risetoneinEnglishfalltypicallyinvolvesthemeaningofacontrastwithinalimitedsetofitemsstatedexplicitlyorimplicitly.(Isn'
(Isn'
thernameMary?
)No/∨JennyTheoldmandidn'
tcome/whereasthe∨didn'
youngman/didcomeandactuallyenjoyedhimselfdidn'
∨Ididn'
tdoit
2.5.4Tone
Putonghua[pa]ChinesePinyincharacterTonesymbolTonenumberTonedescriptionHighlevelHighrisingLowfallingrisingHighfallingGloss'
eight'
pullout'
target'
dam'
八拔靶坝
Bābá
băbà
553521451
Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Itstressesthespeechsounditself.Whilephonologyisalsocalledphonemics,itisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;
itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Itstr
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