Notes on JRFirthWord文档格式.docx
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Notes on JRFirthWord文档格式.docx
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AlthoughJohnRupertFirthhelpedtofoundlinguisticsinGreatBritain,hepublishednomajortheoreticalbook.Despitevacillationsandcontradictions,Firthspositionremainedfairlyconsistent.
InPalmersestimate,FirthalonepioneeredlinguisticsinBritain,developedhisownoriginalbrand.FirthheldthefirstchairingenerallinguisticsinEngland,whichwasestablishedintheUniversityofLondonin1944.HeremainedlargelyunknowntolinguisticsinAmerica,asidefromPike.FirthdidespousesomeideasofBloomfield,butmainlyduetothethenintellectualclimate.SometimesFirthshowedsolidaritywithAmericanlinguists,butothertimesdepictedtheirworkasnarrowormisguided.
Unlikeothertheorists,FirthsalutestheimportanceofreligioninthehistoryofWesternlinguisticsalongsidescience,liketheSummerInstituteofLinguisticsthattrainsmissionaries.Firthalludestoholybooksportrayinglanguageastheinventionofagod.Butherecognizesreligiousandlinguisticexpansionasasupplementtomorematerialinterests.Afterall,worldlanguagesarebuiltonblood,money.
BeinganOrientalist,FirthalsosalutesthedawnoflanguagestudyinIndiaandthediscoveryofSanskrit.Admittedly,theancientHindugrammariansandlatertheArabswerenotinterestedinvernacular.Theirdescendantsallbelieveinarbitrarylinguisticstandardsandpurity,andadoptastatic,mainlyprescriptiveviewwhichsawlinguisticevolutionasdegeneration.Still,Firththinksthegreatlanguagesofoldercivilizationswerewellpreservedbygrammarians.ThetroublearoselaterwhenLatingrammarwasmisappliedtootherlanguagesalongwithGreeklogicandmetaphysics.Today,themoderntechnicianfindstraditionalgrammaticalcategorieslogicallyandphilosophicallypretentious,outdatedandanuisanceinpractice.Traditionallogicshowsnounderstandingoflanguageorrationaluseofwordsandsentencesineverydaylife.
Inmoderntimes,Firthseesanothergraveflawinlanguagestudy.Intraditionalschoolgrammars,therulesarebasedonpuritantaboos.ThePure-Englishcrusadeleadstotheartificialityof“goodEnglish”,preventing“schoolsandcollegesfromturningoutpupilswhocanputtheirideasintowordswithsimplicity”.
ThisgrimsituationprovidesthebackdroptoFirth’sappealformoredisciplinedmodernlinguisticstudies,includinggrammar.Grammarsandlanguagebookswillbe“X-rayed”andtheresultswillbestatedwithaslittlefeelingaspossibletoencourageopenandnaturaluseoflocalspeechandliterature,notjusttheReceivedEnglishoftheelite.
LikeSweetandMalinowski,Firthpreferstheanalysisoflivinglanguages.Heseesthequestfortheoriginsoflanguageaslargelyfutile.Insteadofgettingfurtherawayfromthehabitswecanobserve,weshouldlookfortheoriginsoflanguageinthewaywelearnanduseit.
FirthisshockedtorealizethatweEnglishhaveyettomakeadequateprovisionforthestudyoflinguisticproblems.Byshowingthatlinguisticsisamoreimportantsocialscience,wemaysecureanendowmentforanInstituteofLinguisticResearchtoaddresseducationalandsocialproblems.HeproclaimsthattheuseoftheEnglishlanguagetodayisthegreatestsocialforceinthewholeworld,andweshouldleadthewayintrainingyoungpeopletowardsacriticalunderstandingoflanguagebehaviour.FirthbelievesthatEnglishistheonlypracticableworldlanguageandcanbetaughtinanormalizedformasasecondlanguage,andeasiertolearnthanFrenchorGerman.Todealwiththetheoryoflanguage,theWesternscholarmustde-Europeanizehimself.Firthhailstheenormousscopeintheapplicationofgenerallinguisticsforthedevelopmentofunder-developedcountries.Here,thegenerallinguistmustofferhelpandguidance.FirthlaudstheweightycontributionsofEnglishlinguists,grammarians,rhetoricians,phoneticians,andorthographers.
Firthisuncertainabouthowbroadhisdisciplineshouldbe.Asasocialscience,linguisticsisaheadoftheothersintheoreticalformulationandtechniqueofstatement;
itsfindingsarebasicandmustbecarefullystudied.Linguisticsshouldseekalliancewiththebiologicalandsocialsciencesanddevelopproperrelationshipswithallsciences.
FirthisgratifiedthatlinguisticsinEuropehasbecomeanautonomousdisciplineandnolongerplaysecondfiddletoothers.Psychologyemphasizesincommunicableexperience,andlogichasgivenusbadgrammarandtakentheheartoutoflanguage.Logiccannotformanintegralpartoflinguistics.Firthavowsthatlinguisticscannotbeseeninproperperspectivewithoutaphilosophyoflanguage.
Linguisticshasnotbeendevelopedtodealwithlanguageingeneralterms.Weneedalinguistictheoryapplicabletoparticularproblemsinsteadofatheoryforgeneraldescription.AnotherperilisthedualismbetweenmindandbodydatingfromDescartesandupheldbySwiss.Firthtakesmindandbodytogetherasbeingconstrainedinspecificconditions.Anormallinguisticbehaviourasawholeisameaningfuleffortformaintainingproperpatternsoflife.Ourbodiesaretheprimaryfieldofexperienceandexpression.Speechsituateswithinanetworkofrelationsbetweenpeople,things,andevents.Itisabodilyhabitpointingnotonlytothebrainfunction,butalsotolocalizedspeechcentresplusourbodymovements.Somehopeforapurelymechanicalexplanationofallthoughtintermsofitsmotoraccompaniment.JohnB.Watsonvowedthereisnosuchthingasthinking,only“innerspeech”.
However,Firtharguesthatwhereasinstinctivehabitsrequirenolearning,allhumanhabits,likespeech,involvehabitformattingprocesses.Firthportrayswordsasstimulus-responseacts,andspokensentencesassuccessionsofstimuli.“Ifintelligibilitydependedonanarrowreflexconnectionbetweenspeakingandhearing,weshouldallspeakexactlyalike”.Yetnotwopeoplepronounceexactlyalikeusingthesamestyle;
familiarsoundsareconstantlybeingmadeinpartlynewcontexts.Hethereforeadoptedafreshdualism.Weshouldn’tembracematerialismtoavoidfoolishmentalism,asBloomfielddid.EventhoughheapplaudsMalinowski’swarning:
“allmentalstates”are“outsidetherealmofscience”;
and“Itisdangeroustoimaginethatlanguage“mirrorsthementalreality”.
Hehatestoseelanguageasaninstrumenttomind.Hewantstoregardlanguageasamodeofaction,awayofdoingthingsandgettingthingsdone,ofsocialinteraction.Speechisapatternofgroupbehaviour,verbalizationsoftheexperientialcontexts.Duetocontextualelimination,whatyousayonlycallsforalimitedrangeofresponses.Conversationisnarrowlyconditionedbycultureandbysmallspeechgroups.Firththusseesthemostuniversalformsoflanguagebehaviourinroutineserviceandsocialritual.Heproposesthetermtactwhichdeterminestheuseoffittingformsoflanguageofasocialsituation;
andthetermsetforageneralpatternofbehaviourbelongingtoasocialgrouportype.Thelanguagebehaviourintheactualsituationisamanifestationofthesets,whichtunethemselvesautomaticallytocontextofsituation.
Duetothecloseassociationbetweenpersonalityandsocialstructure,Firthfavourssociologyoverindividualpsychology.Linguisticsismainlyinterestedinpersonsandpersonalitiesasactiveparticipatorsinthemaintenanceofculturalvalues,ratherthanasseparatenaturalentities.Thehumanbeingisthereforetoberegardednotasanindividual,butasapersonactinginhismanysocialroles.Therelevantformsoflanguagefavourssocialresponsibilityandstability.Firthdistinguishedthetermsidiolectfrommonolectwhichislimitedtooneperson.
RejectingSaussure’sdivisionbetween“langue”and“parole”,Firthhopesforasynthesisofcontemporarytheories.Polysystemichypothesesmayrenderthehighlycomplexpatternsoflanguageclearerwithinthepluralityofsystems.Structuralist’sworkformsonlyonepartofstructurallinguisticswhichaimsatemployingalltechnicalresourcessystematicallyformultiplestatementsofmeaning.Incontrast,structuralismemphasizessegmentationandphonemicsandexcludesmeaning.Itseeksalinguisticmathematicswhichwillnotbeworkable.
Structureissyntagmaticandhorizontal,whereassystemisparadigmaticandvertical.Sincesystemsfurnishvaluesforelementsofstructureandacquireorderingfromstructure,theexponentsinsystemsarealwaysconsistent(exponent-theactualshapeofwordsorpartsofwords).Elementsofstructureshareamutualexpectancyinanorderwhichisnotmerelyasequence.Expectancynotonlyexistsbetweenelementsofdiscourse,butalsobetweenwordsandthesurroundinglivingspace.
Linguisticsisagroupoftechniquesforhandlinglanguage.Forempiricalanalysis,descriptivelinguisticsmustbepractical;
itsabstractions,inventionsmustbeabletohandlespeech.Systematicsisschematicconstructsintendedtocoverafieldofphenomena;
theyhavenoontologicalexistence;
theyarejustlanguageturnedbackonitself.
Sincewealltakepartandrelyonexperiencetomakeabstractions,linguisticsisreflexiveandintrovert.Eachscholarmakeshisownselectionandgroupingoffactsdeterminedbyhisattitudes,theories,andexperienceofreality,andhisstatementsmustbereferredtopersonalandsocialconditions.Firthinsiststhattherearenoscientificfactsuntiltheyarestatedinscientificallywithinasystemofrelatedstatements.“Thehigheststatewouldbethatallfacilityisalreadytheory”.
Firthdistinguishesthreemethodsofstatinglinguisticfacts:
(1)languageunderdescription(exemplifiedbytexts),
(2)languageofdescription(technicalterms,notation,etc.),and(3)languageoftranslati
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