PresuppositionWord文件下载.docx
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PresuppositionWord文件下载.docx
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∙Doyouwanttodoitagain?
oPresupposition:
thatyouhavedoneitalready,atleastonce.
∙Janenolongerwritesfiction.
thatJaneoncewrotefiction.
Ⅱ.MainReference
Apresuppositionmustbemutuallyknownorassumedbythespeakerandaddresseefortheutterancetobeconsideredappropriateincontext.Itwillgenerallyremainanecessaryassumptionwhethertheutteranceisplacedintheformofanassertion,denial,orquestion,andcanbeassociatedwithaspecificlexicalitemorgrammaticalfeature(presuppositiontrigger)intheutterance.
Crucially,negationofanexpressiondoesnotchangeitspresuppositions:
IwanttodoitagainandIdon'
twanttodoitagainbothpresupposethatthesubjecthasdoneitalreadyoneormoretimes;
MywifeispregnantandMywifeisnotpregnantbothpresupposethatthesubjecthasawife.Inthisrespect,presuppositionisdistinguishedfromentailmentandimplicature.Forexample,ThepresidentwasassassinatedentailsthatThepresidentisdead,butiftheexpressionisnegated,theentailmentisnotnecessarilytrue.
Negationofasentencecontainingapresupposition
Ifpresuppositionsofasentencearenotconsistentwiththeactualstateofaffairs,thenoneoftwoapproachescanbetaken.GiventhesentencesMywifeispregnantandMywifeisnotpregnantwhenonehasnowife,theneither:
1.Boththesentenceanditsnegationarefalse;
or
2.Strawson'
sapproach:
Both"
mywifeispregnant"
and"
mywifeisnotpregnant"
useawrongpresupposition(i.e.thatthereexistsareferentwhichcanbedescribedwiththenounphrasemywife)andthereforecannotbeassignedtruthvalues.
BertrandRusselltriestosolvethisdilemmawithtwointerpretationsofthenegatedsentence:
1.“Thereexistsexactlyoneperson,whoismywifeandwhoisnotpregnant”
2.“Theredoesnotexistexactlyoneperson,whoismywifeandwhoispregnant.”
Forthefirstphrase,Russellwouldclaimthatitisfalse,whereasthesecondwouldbetrueaccordingtohim.
Projectionofpresuppositions
Apresuppositionofapartofanutteranceissometimesalsoapresuppositionofthewholeutterance,andsometimesnot.We'
veseenthatthephrasemywifetriggersthepresuppositionthatIhaveawife.Thefirstsentencebelowcarriesthatpresupposition,eventhoughthephraseoccursinsideanembeddedclause.Inthesecondsentence,however,itdoesnot.JohnmightbemistakenabouthisbeliefthatIhaveawife,orhemightbedeliberatelytryingtomisinformhisaudience,andthishasaneffectonthemeaningofthesecondsentence,but,perhapssurprisingly,notonthefirstone.
1.Johnthinksthatmywifeisbeautiful.
2.Johnsaidthatmywifeisbeautiful.
Thus,thisseemstobeapropertyofthemainverbsofthesentences,thinkandsay,respectively.AfterworkbyLauriKarttunen,verbsthatallowpresuppositionsto“passup”tothewholesentence(“project”)arecalledholes,andverbsthatblocksuchpassingup,orprojectionofpresuppositionsarecalledplugs.Somelinguisticenvironmentsareintermediatebetweenplugsandholes:
Theyblocksomepresuppositionsandallowotherstoproject.Thesearecalledfilters.Anexampleofsuchanenvironmentisindicativeconditionals(“If-then”clauses).Aconditionalsentencecontainsanantecedentandaconsequent.Theantecedentisthepartprecededbytheword“if”andtheconsequentisthepartthatis(orcouldbe)precededby“then.”Iftheconsequentcontainsapresuppositiontrigger,andthetriggeredpresuppositionisexplicitlystatedintheantecedentoftheconditional,thenthepresuppositionisblocked.Otherwise,itisallowedtoprojectuptotheentireconditional.Hereisanexample:
IfIhaveawife,thenmywifeisblonde.
Here,thepresuppositiontriggeredbytheexpressionmywife(thatIhaveawife)isblocked,becauseitisstatedintheantecedentoftheconditional:
Thatsentencedoesn'
timplythatIhaveawife.Inthefollowingexample,itisnotstatedintheantecedent,soitisallowedtoproject,i.e.thesentencedoesimplythatIhaveawife.
Ifit'
salready4am,thenmywifeisprobablyangry.
Hence,conditionalsentencesactasfiltersforpresuppositionsthataretriggeredbyexpressionsintheirconsequent.
Asignificantamountofcurrentworkinsemanticsandpragmaticsisdevotedtoaproperunderstandingofwhenandhowpresuppositionsproject.
Presuppositiontriggers
Apresuppositiontriggerisalexicalitemorlinguisticconstructionwhichisresponsibleforthepresupposition.ThefollowingisaselectionofpresuppositionaltriggersfollowingStephenC.Levinson'
sclassictextbookonPragmatics,whichinturndrawsonalistproducedbyLauriKarttunen.Asiscustomary,thepresuppositionaltriggersthemselvesareitalicized,andthesymbol
»
standsfor‘presupposes’
Definitedescriptions
Mainarticle:
Definitedescription
Definitedescriptionsarephrasesoftheform"
theX"
whereXisanounphrase.Thedescriptionissaidtobeproperwhenthephraseappliestoexactlyoneobject,andconversely,itissaidtobeimproperwheneitherthereexistsmorethanonepotentialreferences,asin"
thesenatorfromOhio"
ornoneatall,asin"
thekingofFrance"
.Inconventionalspeech,definitedescriptionsareimplicitlyassumedtobeproper,hencesuchphrasestriggerthepresuppositionthatthereferentisuniqueandexistent.
∙Johnsawthemanwithtwoheads.
Thereexistsamanwithtwoheads.
FactualVerbs
Seealso:
Epistemology&
Truth
InWesternepistemology,thereisatraditionoriginatingwithPlatoofdefiningknowledgeasjustifiedtruebelief.Onthisdefinition,forsomeonetoknowX,itisrequiredthatXbetrue.Alinguisticquestionthusarisesregardingtheusageofsuchphrases:
doesapersonwhostates“JohnknowsX”implicitlyclaimthetruthofX?
StevenPinkerdiscussestheusageofthephrase"
havinglearned"
asanexampleofafactualverbinGeorgeW.Bush'
sstatementthat“BritishIntelligencehaslearnedthatSaddamHusseinrecentlysoughtsignificantquantitiesofuraniumfromAfrica.Thefactualitythesis,thepropositionthatrelationalpredicateshavingtodowithknowledge,suchasknows,learn,remembers,andrealized,presupposethefactualtruthoftheirobject,however,wassubjecttonotablecriticismbyAllanHazlett.MartharegretsdrinkingJohn'
shomebrew.
MarthadrankJohn'
∙FrankensteinwasawarethatDraculawasthere.
Draculawasthere.
∙Johnrealizedthathewasindebt.
Johnwasindebt.
∙Itwasoddhowproudhewas.
Hewasproud.
Somefurtherfactualpredicates:
know;
besorrythat;
beproudthat;
beindifferentthat;
begladthat;
besadthat.
Implicativeverbs
∙Johnmanagedtoopenthedoor.
Johntriedtoopenthedoor.
∙Johnforgottolockthedoor.
Johnoughttohavelocked,orintendedtolock,thedoor.
Somefurtherimplicativepredicates:
XhappenedtoV»
Xdidn'
tplanorintendtoV;
XavoidedV-ing»
Xwasexpectedto,orusuallydid,oroughttoV,etc.
Changeofstateverbs
∙Johnstoppedbeatinghiswife.
Johnhadbeenbeatinghiswife.
∙Joanbeganbeatingherhusband.
Joanhadn'
tbeenbeatingherhusband.
∙Kissingercontinuedtoruletheworld.
Kissingerhadbeenrulingtheworld.
Somefurtherchangeofsateverbs:
start;
finish;
carryon;
cease;
take(asinXtookYfromZ
Ywasat/in/withZ);
leave;
enter;
come;
go;
arrive;
etc.
Interatives
∙Theflyingsaucercameagain.
Theflyingsaucercamebefore.
∙Youcan'
tgetgobstoppersanymore.
Youoncecouldgetgobstoppers.
∙Carterreturnedtopower.
Carterheldpowerbefore.
Furtheriteratives:
anothertime;
tocomeback;
restore;
repeat;
forthenthtime.
Temporalclauses
∙BeforeStrawsonwasevenborn,Fregenoticedpresuppositions.
Strawsonwasborn.
∙WhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics,therestofsocialsciencewasasleep.
Chomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics.
∙SinceChurchilldied,we'
velackedaleader.
Churchilldied.
Furthertemporalclauseconstructors:
after;
during;
whenever;
as(asinAsJohnwasgettingup,heslipped).
Cleftsentences
∙Cleftconstruction:
ItwasHenrythatkissedRosie.
SomeonekissedRosie.
∙Pseudo-cleftconstruction:
WhatJohnlostwashiswallet.
Johnlostsomething.
Comparisonsandcontrasts
Comparisonsandcontrastsmaybemarkedbystress(orbyotherprosodicmeans),byparticleslike“too”,orbycomparativesconstructions.
∙MariannecalledAdolphamalechauvinist,andthenHEinsultedHER.
ForMariannetocallAdolphamalechauvinistwouldbetoinsulthim.
∙CarolisabetterlinguistthanBarbara.
Barbaraisalinguist.
Cou
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- 关 键 词:
- Presupposition
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