Environmental History Yang Yuanyuan B1196502Word文件下载.docx
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Environmental History Yang Yuanyuan B1196502Word文件下载.docx
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2012/01/25
Supervisor:
AnnaMcDonald
GlobalEnvironmentM1
ID:
B1196502
YANGYUANYUAN
Introduction
Cocahasanearly4,000yeartraditioninSouthAmericaaccordingtoarchaeologicalfinds.ItusedtoplayasignificantroleinAndeancultureandeconomics,anditspossessionhasneverbeenshockedtilltoday.Withtheresearchanddiscoveryoftheextractedcocainealkaloidin1854,thelate19thandearly20thcenturysawanexplosionofcocacultivationandtransportallaroundtheworld(HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown).EventhoughtheWorldWarIIendedthecommoditychainofcocawhichhadlastedalmostacentury,themodernworldisstillsufferingaseriesofproblemsasaresultofthecocaineusingandincreasingcocacultivation.
Thetimelineoftheexpansionofcocaandcocainecanbedividedintofourparts,whichare2100BC-1860s,thetraditionaluseofcocaleafinAndeanregion;
1860s-1910,thecreationofworldcommoditynetworksaroundcocaandcocaine;
1910-1950,themountingpoliticalandmarketconstraintsoncocaandcocaine;
1950-now,theillegalmoderncocaineabuseanddrugcontrol.Theuseofcocaleafofthefirstperiod,whichincludesrelievingfatigueandhunger,traditionalmedicalapplicationsandreligioussacrificial,isnotcoveredbythisarticleasithaslittleimpactonthemodernsocietyandenvironment.
Mostofthecocaplantationsintheworldareintropicalregions,sincegenerallyrainforestsarelocatedinremoteandalmostimpenetrableareas,whereplantationsareeasiertodisguise,andcocaalsohappenstogrowwellonwetlowlands.ColombiahasbeenthenumberonecocaineproducerintheworlduntilPeruovertakenitasworld'
sleadingproducerofcocaleafaccordingtoareportpublishedbytheUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime(UNODC)onJune2010.TheincreasingcultivationofcocainSouthAmerica,especiallyintheAndeanregion,hascontributedtobothsocialandenvironmentalproblems,suchasdrugcrime,smuggling,deforestationandwaterpollution.
Thecocaineproductionandtradeisaninternationalproblemofbothsupplyanddemand.Mostpeoplerealizethesocialimpactsofthedrugtradeworldwide,butfewrealizetheenvironmentalconsequencesoftheincreasingcocacultivation,whichareconsiderable.
Thisarticlehopes,byreviewingthehistoryofcocaandanalyzingtheenvironmentalandsocialimpactsoftheexpandingcultivationandtransportofit,toincreasethepublicawarenessofthisissueandfindpossiblewayswhichcanhelptoimprovethecurrentsituation.
Abriefhistoryofcocacultivationandtrade
WithdeeprootsinAndeanculturehistory,cocadidnotbecomeanexportablecommodityuntilthelate-nineteenthcentury.Butintheyear1854,becauseoftheextractedofcocainealkaloidfromthecocaleaf,theworldbegantointerestinthisnewkindof"
elixir"
andchangedcocatoaworldwildcommodity(HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown).Theexpansionofthecultivateonandtradeofcocacameaboutquicklyafter1860sasEuropeanbotanyandmedicinesettledcoca'
sstimulantpower,asindustrializingsocietiessearchedfornewhealthstimulantsandmodernmedicalmarvelsandasAndeannationsdesperatelysoughtnewmodernexportgoods.
In1863,AngeloMariani,aFrenchpharmacist,launchedhisremarkablysuccessfulVinMarianicoca-Bordeauxwine,aseriesofcoca-containingproducts,andbecamethesinglelargestuserofAndeancoca.Asaresult,between1863and1885,FrenchmedicalinterestfilteredtoPeru(HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown).
Asthestartofanesthesiaandothermedicalusessince1855,thecocapriceandoutputjumpedfiveandtwentytimesrespectively.Facedwiththerelativelyhigh-profitofcocaproduction,inthe1860sto1870s,Peruvianmedicalandculturalspokesmenovercametraditionaleliteprejudicesandbegantoseriouslyre-evaluatenativecoca,asagoodandmarketablething.Subsequently,afteradoptioninsurgery,thecocaproductionrosequicklytoover500kilosannuallyin1890,1,500kilosin1898,andtomorethan2,400kilosby1902.MerckCompany,amajorproducerofcocaineinAmerica,madeaboutaquarterofworldcocaineduringthisperiod(HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown).Andthisbecametheturningpointofcocaandcocaineproduction.Merck'
sstrategyofencouragingPeruviansuppliersofcrudecocainemadethetransporteasierandfittedtheEuropeancultural-medicalpreferencefor"
pure"
scientificcocaine.By1892,crudecocaineearningssurpassedPeru'
srevenuefromcoca-leafitself.Asthesuccessofcrudecocaine,theworldproductionofcocaineexceeding15metrictonsbytheearly1900s.Around1901,Peru'
slocalcocainezenith,thetotalproductionpeakedat10,700kilosofcrudecocaine,whichrequiredtheuseofsome160tonsofrawcoca-leaf.By1900,Americansweretheworld'
slargestandavidconsumersandboostersofcocaine.TheUnitedStatesimported600-1000metrictonsofcocaannually,mainlyforthepopularmarketofCoca-Cola,anonalcoholdrinklaunchedin1886asa"
dry"
southernimitationofMariani'
spopularhealthbeverage.ThetotalU.S.Consumptionpeakedaround9tonsin1903,orsometwo-thirdsoftotalflobalusageofsome15tons.
WiththeincreasingdemandofcocaineinbothEuropeandUnitedStates,intheearly1900s,theinternationalcocamarketsbecamesaturated(HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown).
Butafterthepeakofcocacommerce,1910s-1950ssawcocaine’sdeclininganditsglobalprohibition.Fromproductionofmorethan15tonsormorein1905,totaluselikelyhalvedtofewerthan8tonsby1930,by1950,theU.N.setlegalworldmedicinalneedsatunder4tonsofcocaine(HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown).
Therearetwomainfactorsdrovethedecline.Thefirstisanarrowingofmedicalusagebysubstitutesandbymedicalopinion.AsNCF(NederlandschCocainefobrieck)madetheNococain,cocaine’slatestsyntheticsubstitutein1920s,thecocapricesplummeted.Thendominantmedicalandgovernmentalopinionbegantoturnagainstcocaandcocaine(alongwithalcoholandnarcotics)andspreading“fiends”.Inmedicalscience,theideaofcocaineasapoisonousoraddictivenarcoticinPerudevelopedintoagrowinganti-cocasentiment.Andcocaisviewedasbackwardsandharmfultodevelopment.Thesecondreasonistheincreasinganti-cocainelawsandcampaignsbystatesandinternationalorganizations.TheUnitedStates,thelargestconsumer-marketinitiatednationalrestrictionsinthe1906FDA(FoodandDrugAdministration)Actfollowedbyafederalban(inthe1914HarrisonAct)andafullimport-controlsystemby1922.TheyalsopushedglobalcocainecontrolsattheHagueConventionsof1912-1914andatsuccessiveLeague-of-Nations’sponsoredGenevaanti-naroticsConventionsstartingin1924-1925.Thenthegrowingworldanti-cocainefilteredtoPeru,inagreatturnaboutaround1925-1950viascience,politicsandmarkets.After1920,illicituseofcocainelargelydriedupintheUnitedStates,andpopularcocaproductsbecameentirelybannedandeliminated,withthenotableexceptionofboomingandcocaine-freeCoca-Cola.InPeru,bythemid-1920s,Peruvianhealthofficialsembracedafewmodernnarcoticscontrols,inthemid-1940s,theseregulationsturnintopolicefactions,preludetocriminalizingoflegalcocaine-makingin1947-1949.(HofC,authorunknown,datesunknown)
WorldWarIIwasthedefinitiveturningpointofcoca.ThewarcutoffthecommoditychainofcocaleaftoEurope,andafterwardswiththeadventoftheColdwar,thechainbornalmostacenturybefore,ended--atleastinitslicitmarkerphase.
Since1950,Andeancocaine,outlawedbyauthoritieseverywhere,thelegalcocainemarketended.Anundergroundcultureandchainofillicitcocainewasconstructedbetweentheyearsof1950to1970.ThenasAmericancocainesuppressionheatedupafter1980,hugenewretailmarketswerediscoveredandcocafrontiersforillicitexportspreadmassivelyintothedeepjungleofAmazon.Bytheearly1990s,illicitcocaineenvelopedaproductivecapacityestimatedintherangeof1000metrictons.Moderncocaineabusebecameanewhot-pointofcocacommerce.
Thefactorscontributetotheexpansionofcocacultivation
Therearealotoffactorscontributetotheshiftincocaproductionfromtraditionalusetoacash-crop.Thissectionwillseethethreemainreasonswhichgiverisetotheexpansionofcocacultivation.
1)Economicalprofits
Coca,withanIRR(InternalRateofReturn)exceeding114percentforeachofthetwovarieties(sweetandbitter),ismoreprofitablethananyotherlegallycultivatedcropinColombia(FIGURE3-1)(HomeofFAO).Infact,theonlycroptoreturnagreaterprofitthancocainColombiawaspoppy,whichreturnedaprofit22percenthigherthancoca(SweeneyJohn,1995).Furthermore,cocaiseasytomarket,astheproductsareboughtbyintermediariesatthefarmgate,whichmeansthatfarmerssparingthecostsoftransport.
In1992,Colombiaonlyproduced13percentoftheworld'
scoca(ArmsteadL,1992),however,till2010,itreached40percentoftotalproductionanddistributionworldwide(Telegraphnews,2010).ThecocaandcocainebusinesshashadanenormouseffectinColombia.EstimatesplacethatthetotalincomeofdrugrepatriatedintotheColombiaeconomytobeashighas$7billion,whichisalmostaslargeasthetotallegitimateexportsofColombiawhichwere$7.6billionin1993.ThesehugeprofitsexertaninfluenceovernearlyeveryaspectoflifeinColombia.Andover$100millionoftheprofitsisspentonbribestoColombianofficials
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