Conversational-Implicature-Pragmatics-3PPT文档格式.ppt
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Conversational-Implicature-Pragmatics-3PPT文档格式.ppt
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ConversationalImplicature,Lecture3,Wordsarelikeleaves;@#@andwheretheymostabound,Muchfruitofsensebeneathisrarelyfound.(AlexanderPope,AnEssayonCriticism),Theoriesofmeaning,Thereferentialtheoryclaimsthateverysentenceisacombinationofwordsandeachwordstandsforanobject.Themeaningofthewordistheobjectthewordrefersto.ThekingofFranceisbald.ThemorningstaristheEveningstar.,Thedistinctionbetweenasentenceandtheuseofasentence“wecannottalkofthesentencebeingtrueorfalse,butonlyofitsbeingusedtomakeatrueorfalseassertion,or(ifthisispreferred)toexpressatrueorfalseproposition.”(Strawson,1950)Wariswar.,Meaninginuse,contextandintentionStevenson(1963)proposestwokindsofmeaning:
@#@Descriptive/conventionalmeaningnotcarrytheindividualwillandattitudePsychological/pragmaticmeaningdependontheintentionandfeelingofthespeakerandhearer.,Gricestheoryofmeaning,Naturalmeaning(meaning-n)Withnoagentorintention,themeaningisperceivednaturally.XmeansthatPentailsP.Thoseblackcloudsmeanrain.Thosespotsmeanmeasles.Non-naturalmeaning(meaning-nn)Intentionisinvolved.XmeansP,butitdoesntnecessarilyentailP.Theringsonthebellmeanthebusisfull.Hiscoughmeansthatheisseriouslyill.,Non-naturalmeaning(meaning-nn),AmeantsomethingbyX=AintendedtheutteranceofXtoproducesomeeffectinanaudiencebymeansoftherecognitionofthisintention.(Grice,inMeaning,1957)Smeant-nnbyutteringUifandonlyif:
@#@(i)SintendedUtocausesomeeffectzinrecipientH(ii)Sintended(i)tobeachievedsimplybyHrecognizingthatintention(i)Whatiscommunication?
@#@IncidentaltransferofinformationCommunicationproperinvolvesintentionandagency.Onlythoseinferencesthatareopenlyintendedtobeconveyedcanproperlybesaidtohavebeencommunicated.,Kindsofcommunicationalcontent,Saidvs.implicated“Withsomeknowledgeofacertainlanguage,thespeakerproducesastandardgrammaticalsentenceandthissentence,withoutanyconsiderationofcircumstantialfactors,canbeunderstoodproperlyaccordingtoitsconventionalmeaning.”(truth-conditional)Conventionalvs.non-conventionalSimplyattachedbyconventiontoparticularlexicalitemsorexpressions.(but,therefore,even,yet)Sheispoorandhonest.Sheispoorbuthonest.(propositionalcontent,implication)(context-free),Non-conversationalvs.conversationalApoorlydescribedclasswhichGricethoughtasderivablefromthepossible“aesthetic,social,ormoral”maximswhichheindicatedexistbutdidnotargueforinhisworkCP-involvedimplicature(CP)A:
@#@Whereismyfish?
@#@B:
@#@Oh,thecatlookshappy.Generalvs.particular(maximobservation),Conversationalimplicature,PutforwardbyGriceintheWilliamJamesLecturesatHarvardUniversityin1967Aninferencefromthesemanticcontentdependingoncontext,speakersintention,hearersattitudeandthemutualassumption.TheCP-directedimplicaturesAnotherclassictopicinPragmaticsbecauseitstudiestheunstablecontext-specificpragmaticoverlayofthatstablesemanticcore.,TheimportanceofCI,CIstandsasaparadigmaticexampleofthenatureandpowerofpragmaticexplanationoflinguisticphenomena.Itprovidessomeexplicitaccountofhowitispossibletomeanmorethanwhatisactuallysaid.A:
@#@Canyoutellmethetime?
@#@B:
@#@Well,themilkmanhasjustcome.,Itseemslikelytosimplifythestructureandthecontentofsemanticdescriptions.Thelonerangerjumpedonhishorseandrodeintothesunset.Thelonerangerrodeintothesunsetandjumpedonhishorse.Theflagiswhite.Theflagiswhite,redandblue.(ambiguous?
@#@)Thetheoryhasaverygeneralexplanatorypower:
@#@afewbasicprincipleprovideexplanationsforalargearrayofapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Metaphors,tautologies,somelogicaldilemma,nallnotall,CooperativePrinciple,CP-Makeyourcontributionsuchasitisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.N.B.Phrasedasaprescriptivecommand,theprincipleisintendedasadescriptionofhowpeoplenormallybehaveinconversation(differentfromRhetoric).,4maxims,ThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;@#@Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;@#@Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationMakeyourcontributionrelevant.ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous,andspecifically:
@#@avoidobscurityavoidambiguitybebriefbeorderly.TheHorniansystem,Observationvs.violation,Observation:
@#@Observationofboththegeneralprincipleanditsmaxims(Whatdayistoday?
@#@Thursday.)Observationofthegeneralprincipleonly(adherencetotheprincipleatadeeperlevel),Violations:
@#@ViolationofCPasawhole(noCI)withoutthehearersawareness(misleading,e.g.lie)attheawarenessofthehearer(“nocomments.”notmisleading)Viol
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