法律学契约简论中英文对照外文翻译文献Word格式文档下载.docx

法律学契约简论中英文对照外文翻译文献Word格式文档下载.docx

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法律学契约简论中英文对照外文翻译文献@#@中英文对照外文翻译@#@ @#@@#@1.Brieflyoncontracts@#@Thelawofcontractsisconcernedwiththeenforcementofpromissoryobligations.Contractualliabilityisusuallybasedonconsentfreelygivenintheformofanexpresspromiseoroneimpliedinfactfromtheactsoftheparties.Insomecircumstances,however,thecourtswillimplyapromise（oftencalledimpliedinlaworquasicontract）inordertoavoidunjustenrichmentinspiteoflackofconsentbythepartywhoisboundbyit.@#@Thesubjectmatterofcontractlawcomprisescapacity,formalities,offerandacceptance,consideration,fraudandmistake,legality,interpretationandconstruction,performanceandconditionsofperformance,frustrationandimpossibility,discharge,rightsofassigneesandthirdpartybeneficiaries,andremedies.Ithas,toaveryconsiderableextent,preserveditsunitaryquality,resistingfundamentaldistinctionsbetweendifferentclassesofcontractsaccordingtoeitherthesubjectoftheagreementorthenatureoftheparties.@#@Accordingly,withsomeexceptions,itsprinciplesareapplicabletoagreementsonsuchvariedsubjectsasemployment,saleofgoodsorland,andinsurance,andtosuchdiversepartiesasindividuals,businessorganizations,andgovernmentalentities.@#@Itislargelystateratherthanfederallaw,butitdiffersusuallyonlyindetailfromonestatetoanther.Whileitisstillprimarilycaselaw,anincreasingnumberofstatutesdealwithparticularproblems.TheUniformCommercialCode,forexample,containssomespecialprovisionsontheformationofcontractsforthesaleofgoods.AndbytheTuckerActof1887,asamended,oneofthemostsignificantofthefederalstatutesinthefield,theUnitedStatesgovernmenthaswaiveditssovereignimmunityincontractactionsbyconsentingtosuitinthefederalcourts.Someruleslaiddownbystatute,andbycaselawaswell,aremandatoryorcompulsoryandcannotbeavoidedbytheparties,whileothersareimplicative,interpretative,orsuppletoryandcanbevariedbyagreement.@#@Acontractmaybesimplydefinedasapromiseforthebreachofwhichthelawgivesaremedy,althoughtheword“contract”mayalsobeusedtorefertotheseriesofactsbywhichthepartiesexpressedtheiragreement,tothedocumentwhichtheymayhaveexecuted,ortothelegalrelationswhichhaveresulted.Notallpromiseareenforceableandseveralcriteriamustbemetbeforethelawwillgivearemedy.Twoofthemostfundamentalofthesearetherequirementofawritingandrequirementofconsideration.therequirementofawritingisimposedbystatutesoffrauds,derivedfromtheEnglishStatuteofFraudsof1677,whichhavebeenenactedthroughouttheUnitedStates.Typicallytheyprovidethat,withsomeexceptions,specifiedkindsofcontractsareunenforceableunlessevidencedbyawriting.Theyusuallycovercontractstosellgoodsofmorethanaminimumvalue,contractstosellland,contractstoanswerforthedebtofanother,andcontractsnottobeperformedwithinayear.Manyagreements,suchasmostcontractstofurnishservices,arenotincludedandareenforceableevenifthereisnowriting.AlthoughdissatisfactionhasledtotherepealofmostoftheEnglishStatuteofFraudsin1954,therehasbeennoseriousmovementforitsabolitionintheUnitedStates.@#@apartfromanyrequirementofawriting,apromiseisnotgenerallyenforceableintheUnitedStatesunlessitissupportedbyconsideration.Historicallyapromissorycouldmakeabindingwrittenpromise,evenwithoutconsideration,byaffixinghiswaxsealtothewriting.Butasthewaxsealwasreplacedbyapennedorprintedimitation,thesealbecameanemptyformalityanditseffectivenesshasnowbeeneliminatedoratleastgreatlydiminishedbystatestatutes.Considerationisessentiallysomethingforwhichthepromisorhasbargainedandwhichhehasreceivedinexchangeforhisownpromise.Itmaybeanotherpromisegiveninreturn,inwhichcasetheresultingcontractisknownasabilateralcontract,oritmaybeanactgiveninreturn,inwhichcasetheresultingcontractisknownasunilateralcontract.But,forexample,agratuitouspromise,includingonetopayforgoodsorserviceswhichhavealreadysupportedbyconsideration.Fortunatelythereareonlyafewsuchinstancesofbusinesspromisesinwhichtherequirementofconsiderationisnotmet.Oneofthemosttroublesomeinvolvesthe“firm”,orirrevocable,offer.TheusualruleintheUnitedStatesisthatanofferorhasthepowertorevokehisofferatanytimebeforeitsacceptancebytheofferee,andapromisebytheofferornottorevokeisnotgenerallyeffectiveunlesssupportedbyconsideration.Acommondeviceforholdingtheofferortohispromiseisthepaymenttohimofanominalsum,forexampleonedollar,asconsiderationforwhatisthenknownasan“option.”Evenwithoutconsiderationafew