AnintroductiontoForeignLanguageLearningandTeaching.docx
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AnintroductiontoForeignLanguageLearningandTeaching.docx
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AnintroductiontoForeignLanguageLearningandTeaching
AnintroductiontoForeignLanguageLearningandTeaching
AnIntroductiontoForeignLanguageLearning
andTeaching
ThissemesterIreadabookcalledAnIntroductiontoForeign
LanguageLearningandTeaching.ItiswrittenbytheKeithJohnson,
publishedbyPearsonEducationLimited.ItisverysimilartothebookMiss.Leirecommendedforus.Generallyspeaking,itisaveryenlightenedbookforus.
Thereportconsistsoftwoparts.First,therestatementofthebook.Inmyopinion,theprocedureofretellingisalsoachanceformetofurtherunderstandtheideainthisbook.Then,Iwillgivemyownthoughtaboutthisbook.
1.TheThemeandStructureaboutThisBook
Thisbookiscomposedof15units.TheyareUnit1fivelearnersandfivemethods;Unit2whatistheretolearn;Unit3someviewsoflanguageandlanguagelearning;Unit4learnersandtheirerrors;Unit5acquisition:
somecharacteristics;Unit6Acquisition:
sometheories;Unit7learningandacquisitionagain;Unit8individuallanguagelearners:
somedifferences;Unit9goodlanguagelearnersandwhattheydo;Unit10languageteaching:
abriskwalkthroughrecenttimes;Unit11context;Unit12plans;Unit13waysandmeans;Unit14skills;Unit15Tests.
However,these15unitscanbedividedinto3parts.Part1,fromUnit1toUnit3,isaboutthebackgroundknowledge.Part2,fromUnit4toUnit
9,isaboutlearning.Part3,fromUnit10toUnit15,isaboutTeaching.
1.1BackgroundKnowledge
Firstofall,Part1,backgroundknowledge.Whatexactlyisinvolvedinlearningaforeignlanguage?
Whatistheretolearn?
Questionsliketheonesaboveneedtobeapproachedintwostages.Firstly,wewillidentifywhatdifferenttypesofknowledgeandskillareinvolvedinusingalanguage.Thiswillinvolvetheareasalreadymentioned-likepronunciation,vocabularyandgrammar-aswellassomelessobviousones.Theresultofthisstageofinquirywillbealistofallthelevelsonwhichalanguagecanbeanalyzed:
thelevelsinwhichthedisciplineoflinguisticsisconcernedwith.
Butdescribingthesedifferentlevelsofknowledgeandskillonlyhalf-answeroutquestions.Thisisbecausenoteverythinginvolvedinusingalanguageneedstobelearnedafreshbythelearner.Thesecondstageofinquiryaskstheextenttowhichmasteryoftheselevelsinvolvesnewlearning.OnewayoffindingoutwhataparticularlearnerwillfindeasyordifficultintheFListoundertakeacomparisonofFLandL1,inordertoidentifysimilaritiesanddifferences.
Intheauthor’sopinion,theforeignlearnermusthavethreecompetence.First,systemiccompetence,itcoversknowledgeandskillrelatedtowaythelanguageworksasasystem.Thisinvolvesmanydifferentlevels,includingpronunciationaswellasgrammar.Second,sociolinguistic
competence,whichincludestherulesofuseandrulesofdiscourse.Third,thestrategiccompetence-as“verbalandnon-verbalcommunication
strategiesthatmaybecalledintoactiontocompensateforbreakdownsincommunication”
1.2Learning
AnFLlearner’slanguageisperhapsnevermoreinterestingthanwhenshegetsthingswrong.Ladowasinterestedinwhatmadesomethingseasyforlearnersandotherthingsdifficult.Hebelievedthatbycomparingthenativelanguage(itsstructure,itssounds,itslexis)andthetargetlanguage,wewouldbeabletofindoutabouteaseanddifficultyoflearning,andthisbeliefwasakindofmanifestoforwhatcametobecalledthe“contrastiveanalysis(CA)hypothesis”.Hereisaclear
statementofit,“thoseelementsthataresimilartothelearner’snative
languagewillbesimpleforhim,andthoseareathataredifferentwillbedifficult”.
TheearlydaysofCAwereheadyone,anditwasbelievedthatcomparingnativeandtargetlanguageswouldtellyoualmosteverythingyouneededtoknownasthestrongCAhypothesis.
ThenWardhaughdevelopedtheweakCAhypothesis.ItsaysthatCAmayhelpusidentifyandexplainsomelearnererrorsoncetheyhaveoccurred.Butthehypothesisis“weak”becauseitdoesnotclaimany
predictivepowerforCA,toforeseeerrorswithanycertaintyinadvance.
Learnererrorsplayanimportantpartinunderstandingtheprocessesofforeign-languagelearning.TheCAhypothesishasholditsmomentatthecenteroftheappliedlinguisticstageand,althoughitmaynotcontinuetoholdthatposition.
Totalklearning,itisnecessarytotalkaboutthedifferencebetweentheconcept“acquisition”and“learning”.StephenKrashendescribes
acquisitionasa“natural”one,wherethereisno“consciousfocusingon
linguisticforms”.Itiswhatwehavealreadyinformallycalledtheprocessof“pickingup”alanguage,justasyoudoifyougoandliveinthe
target-languageenvironment.IndeedKrashensaysthattheminimalconditionforacquisitiontooccuris“participationinnatural
communicationsituations”.
Learning,ontheotherhand,isaconsciousprocess,anditusuallytakesplaceinthelanguageclassroom.ForKrashenitisparticularlymarkedbytwocharacteristics.First,thereiserrorcorrection.Whenlearnersmakemistakes,itisnormalfortheclassroomteachertodrawexplicitattentiontothem,andtocorrecttheerrors.Asweshallseelater,withsomeexceptionsparentsdonotusuallydothis.Thesecondcharacteristiciswhatitisnormalforalessontofocusononelanguagepoint.
Afterdistinguishingtheconceptof“acquisition”and“learning”,there
isatheoryaboutthesecondlanguageacquisition-Schumann’s
AcculturationTheory.
WehavealreadyseenmorethanoncethatattitudestowardssocietyareimportantinFLLearning.TheAmericanappliedlinguistJohnSchumann’sAcculturationtheoryplacessocialconsiderationsatitscenter.Hisfocusisalmostexclusivelyonthosewhoareacquiringaforeignlanguageinthetarget-languageenvironment,likeSpanishL1speakerslivingintheUnitedStates,orEnglishL1speakersexposedtoArabicinSaudiArabia.ThetheoryclaimsthattheimportantfactorinFLlearningsuccessisthelearner’sviewoftheL1speakerandtheirsociety,andheraspirationsregardingbecomingamemberofthatgroup-howmuchshewantsto“belike”theFLspeakers,to“beapartof”theFLsociety.
Thenextimportantissueis“fossilization”,itisusedtodescribewhat
happenswhenalearner’sFLdevelopmentgrindstoahalt.Twothingsarenoteworthyaboutthelearners’progressovertime.Thefirstisthatbythe
endofthetenmonths,allexceptAlbertohadgonewellbeyondthe“putting-no-in-the-sentence”solution,andhadacquiredtherudimentsof
theEnglishnegationsystem.Thisfactisnoteworthybecauseitsuggeststhat,iflefttotheirownresources,somelearnerswillindeedprogress.JustlikeL1acquirers,theyareableto“growoutof”theirmistakesand
movetowardsmasteryofthelanguage.Itisafactthathashighlythought-provokingimplicationsfortheattitudeoflanguageteacherstowardslearnererrors.
ThesecondnoteworthypointrelatestoAlberto.Hewastheexception
totherule.Hemadenoprogressarall,andfinishedashestarted.Somelearnersseemtoreachastagebeyondwhichtheyfailtoprogress.Stabilizationoferroneousformsoccurs,andfossilizationsetsin.
FossilizationisaphenomenonofgreatinterestbothtoFLacquisitionresearchersandtolanguageteachers.Thereasonsareratherobvious:
ifwecanfindoutwhyfossilizationoccursnotonlywillunderstandtheprocessesofforeign-languageacquisitionbetter,butwemayevenbeabletodosomethingtopreventitsoccurrence.
Acommonviewoffossilizationisthatwhenthelanguagealearnerhasacquiredissufficienttomeetherneeds.Inthesecircumstancesthereis,quitesimply,noreasonforthelearner’slanguagetocontinueprogress
towardsthe“norm”.
SchumannusesthecommunicativedistinctiontoexplainwhybothpidginsandFLlearnersfossilize.Itiscommonlythecase,henotes,thatpidginsareusedmainlyforthecommunicativefunction,whiletheL1isgenerallyreservedfortheintegrative.Becausetheyaredesignedtofulfillsucharestrictedfunction,Schumannargues,pidginsareasdevelopedastheyneedtobe;further“sophistication”isunnecessary.SimilarlywithFL
learners,wheretheyareusingtheFLforsimplecommunicativepurposes,earlyfossilizationislikelytooccur.Where,ontheotherhand,thelearnerwishesinsomewaytointegratewiththespeakersoftheFL,tobeconsideredasoneofthem,thenthereisamotivationforfossilizedforms
tobereplacedbythestandardones.Schumannusesthetermacculturatetoexpresshiscentralidea:
itisthattheoccurrenceorotherwiseoffossilizationwilldependonthedegreetowhichthelearnerwishestoacculturatetotheFLlanguageandsociety.
Schumann’stheoryattemptstoidentifythefactorswhichwillenableustopredictwhetherfossilizationwilloccurinthelanguageofaparticularlearnerorgroupoflearners.Hisfactorsaredividedintotwobroadcategories:
socialandpsychologicaldistance.OnepossiblecriticismisthatitisnotalwaysstraightforwardwhateachfactorwillpredictregardingFLacquisition.
1.3Teaching
Therearetwoprocessesimportantinthemasteringofaforeignlanguage-declarativizationandproceduralization.Thispartisabouthowwe,teachersmighthelplearnerswiththeseprocesses.
Twocharacteristicscanbeassociatedwiththegoodpresentationofnewlanguage.Oneofthemisclarity.Thelanguagepointyouareconveyingtoyourlearnersneedsbetoclear.Thesecondoneismemorability.Forthepointtoremaininthelearners’heads,itneedstobe
presentedinamemorableway.
Onewayifconveyinginformationaboutlangu
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