《新编语言学教程》课后答案.docx
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《新编语言学教程》课后答案.docx
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《新编语言学教程》课后答案
(1)semantics:
thestudyoflinguisticmeaning.
(2)truth-conditionalsemantics:
anapproachthatknowingthemeaningofthesentenceisthesameasknowingtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse,andknowingthemeaningofawordorexpressionisknowingthepartthatitplaysinthetruthorfalsehoodofthesentencecontainingit.
(3)namingtheory:
theviewthatthemeaningofanexpressioniswhatitrefersto,ornames.
(4)behavioristtheory:
theviewthatthemeaningofalinguisticformisdefinedasobservablebehaviorswhichisanapproachdrawingonpsychology.
(5)usetheory:
thesemantictheoryaccordingtowhichthemeaningofanexpressionisdeterminedbyitsuseincommunicationandmoregenerally,insocialinteraction.
(6)sense:
theinherentpartofanexpression’smeaning,togetherwiththecontext,determinesitsreferent.Forexample,knowingthesenseofanounphrasesuchasthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2004allowsonetodeterminethatGeorgesuchasthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2004allowsonetodeterminethatGeorge
(7)reference:
(insemantics)therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,eventsandqualitiestheystandfor.AnexampleinEnglishistherelationshipbetweenthewordtreeandtheobject“tree”(referent)intherealworld.
(8)conceptualmeaning:
Itmeansthemeaningofwordsmaybediscussedintermsofwhattheydenoteorreferto,alsocalleddenotativeorcognitivemeaning.Itistheessentialandinextricablepartofwhatlanguageisandiswidelyregardedasthecentralfactorinverbalcommunication.Forinstance,theconceptualmeaningof“he”inEnglishisanymalepersonormaleanimal.
(9)connotativemeaning:
Itisthecommunicativemeaningthatawordoracombinationofwordshasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overitspurelyconceptualmeaning.Forexample,theconnotativemeaningof“woman”isemotional,frail,inconstant,irrational,etc.
(10)semanticfield:
theorganizationofrelatedwordsandexpressionsintoasystemwhichshowstheirrelationshiptooneanother.Forexample,kinshiptermssuchasfather,mother,brother,sister,uncle,auntbelongtoasemanticfieldwhoserelevantfeaturesincludegeneration,sex,membershipofthefather’sormother’ssideoffamily.
(11)lexicalgap:
theabsenceofawordinaparticularplaceinasemanticfieldofalanguage.Forinstance,inEnglishwehavebrotherversussister,sonversusdaughter,butnoseparatelexemesfor“male”and“female”cousin.
(12)componentialanalysis:
(insemantics)anapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalyzesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,themeaningoftheEnglishwordboymaybeshownas[+human][+male][-adult].
(13)semanticfeature:
thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword.Themeaningofwordmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticcomponentsorfeatures.Forexample,thefeature[+male]ispartofthemeaningoffather,andsoisthefeature[+adult],butotherfeaturesareneededtomakeupthewholemeaningoffather.Often,semanticfeaturesareestablishedbycontrastandcanbestatedintermsof[+]and[-],e.g.womanhasthesemanticfeatures[+human],[-male]and[+adult].
(14)synonym:
thesenserelationsofequivalenceofmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.small/littleanddead/deceased.
(15)antonym:
thesenserelationofvariouskindsofopposingmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.big/small,alive/deadandgood/bad.
(16)hyponymy:
thesenserelationbetweentermsinahierarchy,whereamoreparticularterm(thehyponym)isincludedinthemoregeneralone(thesuperordinate):
XisaY,e.g.abeechisatree,atreeisaplant.
(17)meronym:
thesenserelationbetweenbodyanditspartswhicharenotonlysectionsofthebodybutdefinedintermsofspecificfunctions.Forexample,theheadisthepartofthebodywhichcarriesthemostimportantsenseorgans,i.e.eyes,ears,noseandtongue.
(18)semanticrole:
thewayinwhichthereferentofanounphraseisinvolvedinthesituationdescribedorrepresentedbytheclause,forexampleasagent,patient,orcause.
(19)entailment:
therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofone(thesecond)isinferredfromthetruthoftheother,e.g.CordayassassinatedMaratandMaratisdead;ifthefirstistrue,thesecondmustbetrue.
(20)presupposition:
implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!
”
2.
(1)Hewaitedbythebank.
a.Hewaitedbythefinancialinstitutionwhichpeoplecankeeptheirmoneyinorborrowfrom.b.Hewaitedbythebankoftheriver.
(2)Ishereallythatkind?
a.Ishereallythattypeofperson?
b.Ishereallythatkind-hearted?
(3)Weboughtherdogbiscuits.
a.Weboughtdogbiscuitsforher.
b.Weboughtbiscuitsforherdog.
(4)Hesawthatgasolinecanexplode.
a.Hesawthatgasolinecontainerexplode.
b.Hesawthatgasolinemayexplode.
(5)Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.
a.Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxesintotal.
b.Eachofthefiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.
(6)Hesawherdrawingpencils.
a.Hesawherpencilsfordrawing.
b.Hesawherdrawingthepictureofpencils.
3.
(2)(4)(5)(8)areantonyms;
(1)(3)(6)(7)aresynonyms.
4.charity:
kindness,sympathy,church,helpful
iron:
strong,brave,hard,determined
mole:
traitor,betrayal,spy
snow:
pure,virgin,clean
street:
homeless,livinghard,pitiable
5.
(1)a.hoardb.scribblec.barn,methodd.olfactory
(2)a.acquireb.tellc.wayd.smell
(3)a.buy,win,steal.b.talk,tellc.road,way,pathd.smell
Thesewordsarelessmarkedintheirsetsbecausetheyaremoreusualandtendtobeusedmorefrequently.Theyconsistofonlyonemorphemeandareeasiertolearnandrememberthanothers.Theyarealsooftenbroaderinmeaningandcannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield.
6.homophones:
sea-see,break-brake;polysemies:
sea,break,prayer,mature,trace,househomonyms:
ear.
7.Inasemanticfield,notalllexicalitemsnecessarilyhavethesamestatus.Thelessmarkedmembersofthesamesemanticfield
(1)areusuallyeasiertolearnandrememberthanmoremarkedmembers;
(2)consistofonlyonemorphemeincontrasttomoremarkedmembers;(3)cannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield;(4)tendtobeusedmorefrequentlythanmoremarkedterms;(5)broaderinmeaningthanmoremarkedmembers;(6)arenottheresultofthemetaphoricalusageofthenameofanotherobjectorconcept,butmoremarkedare.
8.
(1)a.bachelor,man,son,paperboy,pope,chief
b.bull,rooster,drake,ram.
The(a)and(b)wordsaremale.
The(a)wordsarehuman.
The(b)wordsareanimals.
(2)a.ask,tell,say,talk,converse
b.shout,whisper,mutter,drawl,holler
The(a)and(b)wordsarerealizedbysounds.
The(a)wordsarenormalvoicequality.
The(b)wordsareproducedbymodifyingone’snormalvoicequality.
(3)a.walk,run,skip,jump,hop,swim
b.fly,skate,ski,ride,cycle,canoe,hang-glide
The(a)and(b)wordsaresports(movement).
The(a)wordsaresportswithoutinstruments.
The(b)wordsaresportswithinstruments.
(1)pragmatics:
abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinuse.
(2)deixis:
themarkingoftheorientationorpositionofentitiesandsituationswithrespecttocertainpointsofreferencesuchastheplace(here/there)andtime(now/then)ofutterance.
(3)reference:
(insemantics)therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,events,andqualitiestheystandfor.
(4)anaphora:
aprocesswhereawordorphrase(anaphor)refersbacktoanotherwordorphrasewhichwasusedearlierinatextorconversation.
(5)presupposition:
implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!
”
(6)SpeechActTheory:
ThetheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.Insaying“Sorry”,youareperforminganactofapology.
(7)indirectspeechact:
anutterancewhoseliteralmeaning(location)andintendedmeaning(illocution)aredifferent.Forexample,Canyoupassthesalt?
isliterallyayes/noquestionbutisusuallyutteredasarequestorpolitedirectiveforaction.
(8)theCooperativePrinciple:
aprincipleproposedbythephilosopherPaulGricewherebythoseinvolvedincommunicationassumethatbothpartieswillnormallyseektocooperatewitheachothertoestablishagreedmeaning.Itiscomposedof4maxims:
quality,quantity,relationandmanner.
(9)thePolitenessPrinciple:
politenessisregardedbymostinterlocutorsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes,suchassavingface,establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation.Thisprinciplerequiresspeakersto“minimizetheexpressionofimpolitebeliefs”.Itiscomposedof6maxims:
MaximsofTact,Generosity,Approbation,Modesty,AgreementandSympathy.
(10)conversationalimplicature:
theuseofconversationalmaximsintheCooperativePrincipletoproduceextrameaningduringconversation.
2.Deicticexpressions:
I,now,you,that,here,tomorrow.
3.Anaphoricexpressions:
she,him,it.
4.
(1)Heboughtthebeer.
(2)Youhaveawatch.
(3)Weboughtacar.
5.Directacts:
(1)/(5);Indirectacts:
(2)/(3)/(4)
6.(a)TheMaximofQuality:
(1)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;
(2)D
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